Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance explained

As Classical Latin developed into Proto-Romance, it experienced various sound changes. An approximate summary of changes on the phonemic level is provided below. Their precise order is uncertain.

General changes

• pronounced as //h// is lost without a trace in all positions.
  • If that results in a collision of identical short vowels, they simply form the corresponding long vowel. Cf. pronounced as //koˈhorte// > pronounced as //ˈkoːrte//.
• Final (unstressed) pronounced as //m// is lost without a trace in polysyllabic words. Cf. pronounced as //ˈnunkʷam// > pronounced as //ˈnunkʷa//.
  • In (stressed) monosyllables it tends to survive as pronounced as //n//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkʷem// > pronounced as //ˈkʷen// > Spanish Spanish; Castilian: quién.^[1]
• Clusters consisting of a stop followed by a liquid consonant draw the stress position forward. Cf. pronounced as //ˈinteɡram// > pronounced as //inˈteɡra//.
  • Two apparent counterexamples are pronounced as //ˈpalpebraːs// and pronounced as //ˈpullitra//, judging by the Old French outcomes French, Old (842-ca.1400);: palpres and French, Old (842-ca.1400);: poltre.
• pronounced as //n// is lost before fricatives, leaving the preceding vowel lengthened (but no longer nasalised). Cf. pronounced as //ˈsponsa// > pronounced as //ˈspoːsa//.
  • pronounced as //n// is often retained or later restored if it belongs to a prefix (in- or con-) or to a word which has forms where a fricative does not follow pronounced as //n//. Cf. pronounced as //deːˈfensa// > French French: défe'''n'''se, thanks to related forms such as the infinitive pronounced as //deːˈfendere// > French French: défe'''n'''dre.
• Sequences of two pronounced as //i(ː)// generally merge to a single long pronounced as //iː//. Cf. pronounced as //au̯ˈdiiː, konˈsiliiː// > pronounced as //au̯ˈdiː, koːˈsiliː//.
• In some outlying rural areas, the diphthongs pronounced as //ae̯// and pronounced as //au̯// reduce to pronounced as //eː// and pronounced as //oː// respectively in Classical times. Influence from such dialects made a number of Latin words acquire monophthongized variants early on. Cf. pronounced as //ˈfae̯ks~ˈfeːks// or pronounced as //ˈkau̯lis~ˈkoːlis//. Most words, however, remain unaffected by this.^[2]
  • Later, 'mainstream' Latin experiences a general monophthongization of pronounced as //ae̯// to pronounced as //ɛː//, and of pronounced as //oe̯// to pronounced as //eː//, and pronounced as //au̯// remains intact in most cases. Cf. pronounced as //'lae̯ta, 'poe̯na, 'au̯rum// > pronounced as //'lɛːta, 'peːna, 'au̯ru//.
• pronounced as //w// turns to the fricative pronounced as //β//, as does original pronounced as //b// in intervocalic position. Cf. pronounced as //ˈwiːwere, ˈtrabem// > pronounced as //ˈβiːβere, ˈtraβe//.
  • Intervocalic pronounced as //β// in contact with a rounded vowel tends to disappear. Cf. pronounced as //ˈriːwus// > pronounced as //ˈriːβus// > pronounced as //ˈriːus//.
    • It is often restored if other forms of the word have a non-rounded vowel following pronounced as //β//. Cf. the nominative plural pronounced as //ˈriːβiː//.
• In hiatus, unstressed front vowels become pronounced as //j//, and unstressed back vowels become pronounced as //w//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈfiːlius, ˈsapuiː// > pronounced as //ˈfiːljus, ˈsapwiː//.
  • The same process also affects stressed front and back vowels in hiatus if they are antepenultimate (in the third-to-last syllable of a word). When pronounced as //j// is produced, primary stress shifts to the following vowel, but when pronounced as //w// is produced, primary stress shifts instead to the preceding syllable. Cf. pronounced as //fiːˈliolus, teˈnueram// > pronounced as //fiːˈljolus, ˈtenwera//.
  • If pronounced as //w// is formed after a geminate consonant, it is deleted. Cf. pronounced as //batˈtuere// > pronounced as //ˈbattwere// > pronounced as //ˈbattere//.
  • pronounced as //w// is deleted before unstressed back vowels. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkarduus, ˈunɡuoː// > pronounced as //ˈkardwus, ˈunɡwoː// > pronounced as //ˈkardus, ˈunɡoː//.^[3]
    • pronounced as //w// is occasionally deleted before unstressed non-back vowels as well. Cf. pronounced as //februˈaːrius// > pronounced as //feˈβrwaːrjus// > pronounced as //feˈβraːrjus//.
    • Similarly, pronounced as //kʷ// is delabialized to pronounced as //k// before back vowels, whether they are stressed or not. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkʷoːmodo, ˈkokʷoː// > pronounced as //ˈkoːmodo, ˈkokoː//.
  • If those changes result in sequences of pronounced as //je(ː)// or pronounced as //wo(ː)//, they merge to pronounced as //eː// and pronounced as //oː// respectively. Cf. pronounced as //paˈrieteːs, duˈodekim// > pronounced as //paˈrjeteːs, ˈdwodeki// > pronounced as //paˈreːteːs, ˈdoːdeki//.
  • If pronounced as //j// forms after pronounced as //kʷ//, the resulting pronounced as //kʷj// simplifies and delabializes to pronounced as //kj//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈlakʷeum// > pronounced as //ˈlakʷju// > pronounced as //ˈlakju//.
• pronounced as //u// raises before pronounced as //i(ː)// or pronounced as //j//. Cf. pronounced as /[ˈkʊi̯, ˈfʊiː]/ > pronounced as /[ˈkui̯, ˈfuiː]/ > Italian Italian: cui, Italian: fui (not *coi, *foi).
• pronounced as //ɡ// before pronounced as //m// vocalizes to pronounced as //u̯//. Cf. pronounced as //fraɡˈmenta, ˈsaɡma// > pronounced as //frau̯ˈmenta, ˈsau̯ma//.
• pronounced as //ks// is reduced to pronounced as //s// before or after a consonant or at the end of words of more than one syllable. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkalks, ˈsekstus// > pronounced as //ˈkals, ˈsestus//.^[4]
  • Intervocalically, it sometimes metathesizes to pronounced as //sk//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈwiːksit// > pronounced as //ˈβiːskit//.
• Words beginning with pronounced as //sC// receive an initial supporting vowel pronounced as /[ɪ]/, unless they are preceded by a word ending in a vowel. Cf. pronounced as /[ˈskɔla]/ > pronounced as /[ɪsˈkɔla]/.
  • The earliest unambiguous attestations occur in inscriptions of the second century AD. In some languages, such as Spanish, word-initial pronounced as //sC// remains phonologically forbidden to this day. In other Romance varieties, such as Romanian, the supporting vowel seems to have been abandoned early on, resulting in restoration of initial pronounced as //sC//. Although there is barely any direct inscriptional evidence of the supporting vowel in Latin inscriptions in the Balkans, its development and subsequent loss is considered to be indirectly attested by the dropping of word-initial pronounced as //e// before pronounced as //sC// in cases in which it was not originally a supporting vowel such as in words such as Romanian Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan: spulbera 'to dust', from Latin: *ex-pulverāre. Compare also pronounced as //ˈskala, eksˈkadere// > *pronounced as /[ɪsˈkala, eskaˈdere]/ > Italian Italian: scala, Italian: scadere; French French: échelle, French: échoir.
• pronounced as //eː// and pronounced as //oː// before pronounced as //stj// are raised, respectively, to pronounced as //iː// and pronounced as //uː//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈbeːstia, ˈoːstium// > pronounced as //ˈbiːstja, ˈuːstja// > Italian Italian: biscia, Italian: uscio.
• Compound verbs stressed on a prefix are usually reconstructed according to their prefixless equivalent, with their stress shifted forward from the prefix. Cf. pronounced as //ˈdispliket// > *pronounced as //disˈplaket//, by analogy with the simplex form pronounced as //ˈplaket//.^[5]
  • pronounced as //ˈrekipit// simply yields pronounced as //reˈkipit// (rather than *pronounced as //reˈkapit//), perhaps because the verb, while recognisable as a compound, was not easy to identify with the original pronounced as //ˈkapit//.
  • Some words such as pronounced as //ˈkolliɡoː// 'fasten' are apparently not recognised as compounds at all and so remain unchanged.
• Monosyllabic nouns ending in a consonant receive an epenthetic final pronounced as //e//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈrem// > pronounced as //ˈren// > pronounced as //ˈrene// > French French: rien.
• Phonemic vowel length gradually collapses via the following changes (which only affect vowel length, not quality):
  • Long vowels shorten in unstressed syllables.
  • Long vowels shorten in stressed closed syllables.
  • Short vowels lengthen in stressed open syllables.
• On account of the above, the vowel inventory changes from pronounced as //iː i eː e a aː o oː u uː// to pronounced as //i ɪ e ɛ a ɔ o ʊ u//, with pre-existing differences in vowel quality achieving phonemic status and with no distinction between original pronounced as //a// and pronounced as //aː//. Additionally:
  • Unstressed pronounced as //ɛ// and pronounced as //ɔ// merge into pronounced as //e// and pronounced as //o// respectively.
  • In the second syllable of words with the structure [ˌσσˈσσ], pronounced as //i// and pronounced as //u// merge into pronounced as //ɪ// and pronounced as //ʊ// respectively.^[6]
• Word-internal pronounced as //j// merges into a preceding consonant and palatalises it. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkaːseum// > pronounced as //ˈkaːsju// > pronounced as //ˈkasʲu// > Italian pronounced as //ˈkatʃo//.

Sporadic changes

• Vowels other than pronounced as //a// are often syncopated in unstressed word-internal syllables, especially in contact with liquid consonants or, to a lesser extent, nasal consonants or pronounced as //s//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈanɡulus, ˈkalida, ˈspekulum// > pronounced as //ˈanɡlʊs, ˈkalda, ˈspɛklu//.
  • In a few words, unstressed initial syllables followed by pronounced as //r// experience syncope. Cf. pronounced as //kʷiriːˈtaːre, diːˈreːktus// > pronounced as //kriˈtare, ˈdrektʊs//.
  • If this results in pronounced as //β// being followed by a consonant, it may vocalize to pronounced as //u̯//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈfabula// > pronounced as //ˈfaβla// > *pronounced as //ˈfau̯la// > Italian fòla (cf. Romanian faulă).
  • If syncope results in pronounced as //tl//, the cluster is generally replaced by pronounced as //kl//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈwetulus// > pronounced as //ˈβɛklʊs//.
• In cases where a long vowel precedes a geminate consonant, one of the elements often shortens unpredictably, sometimes leading to such doublets as pronounced as //ˈkuppa~ˈkuːpa// > pronounced as //ˈkʊppa~ˈkupa// > Spanish Spanish; Castilian: copa, Spanish; Castilian: cuba; French French: coupe, French: cuve.
  • Long vowels sometimes shorten early on in closed syllables even if followed by two different consonants, leading to variations such as pronounced as //ˈuːndekim~ˈundekim// > pronounced as //ˈundekɪ~ˈʊndekɪ// > Italian Italian: undici, Spanish Spanish; Castilian: once.
  • Conversely, the cluster pronounced as /[ŋk]/ may lengthen preceding vowels early on. Cf. pronounced as /[ˈkʷɪŋkʷɛ]/ > pronounced as /[ˈkʷiːŋkʷɛ]/ > pronounced as /[ˈkiŋkʷɛ]/.
• Pretonic vowels sporadically assimilate to or dissimilate from the stressed vowel of the following syllable.
  • pronounced as //a// can dissimilate to pronounced as //o// before a following pronounced as //a//. Cf. pronounced as //naˈtaːre// > pronounced as //noˈtare//.
  • pronounced as //iː// can dissimilate to pronounced as //e// before a following pronounced as //iː//. Cf. pronounced as //diːˈwiːnus, wiːˈkiːnus// > pronounced as //deˈβinʊs, βeˈkinʊs//.
  • pronounced as //au̯// can dissimilate to pronounced as //a// before a following pronounced as //u(ː)//. Cf. pronounced as //au̯ˈɡustus, au̯skulˈtaːre// > pronounced as //aˈɡʊstʊs, askʊlˈtare//.
  • pronounced as //o// can dissimilate to pronounced as //e// before a following back vowel. Cf. pronounced as //roˈtundus, soˈroːre// > pronounced as //reˈtʊndʊs, seˈrore//.
  • pronounced as //i// can assimilate to a following pronounced as //a(ː)//. Cf. pronounced as //silˈwaːtikus// > pronounced as //salˈβatɪkʊs//.
  • pronounced as //eː// can assimilate to a following pronounced as //oː//. Cf. *pronounced as //reːniˈoːne// > *pronounced as //roˈnʲone//.
  • pronounced as //iː// can assimilate to a following pronounced as //eː//. Cf. pronounced as //diːˈreːktus// > *pronounced as //deˈrektʊs//.
• pronounced as //oː// and pronounced as //u// may yield a low-mid vowel if followed by pronounced as //β//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈoːwum, ˈkolubra// > pronounced as //ˈɔβu, koˈlɔβra// > Italian Italian: uovo, Sardinian Sindhi: colòra.
• pronounced as //a// may yield a mid vowel if preceded by pronounced as //j//. Cf. pronounced as //jakˈtaːre// > *pronounced as //jekˈtare//.
• pronounced as //r// assimilates to a following pronounced as //s// in a number of cases. Cf. pronounced as //ˈdorsum// > pronounced as //ˈdɔssu//.^[7]
  • After a long vowel, the resulting pronounced as //ss// reduces to pronounced as //s//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈsuːrsum// > pronounced as //ˈsusu//.
• Initial pronounced as //kr// and pronounced as //kV// sometimes voice. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkrassus// > pronounced as //ˈɡrassʊs//.
  • This is particularly frequent with borrowings from Greek. κρυπτή, καμπή > *pronounced as //ˈɡrʊpta, ˈɡamba// > Italian Italian: grotta, Italian: gamba.
• pronounced as //nd// sometimes assimilates to pronounced as //nn//. Cf. the alternation Latin: grundīre~grunnīre.
• There is occasional loss or assimilation of final pronounced as //s//, but it is nowhere regular until a much later period.
• When two neighbouring syllables each contain pronounced as //r//, one pronounced as //r// frequently dissimilates to pronounced as //l// or is deleted.

See also

• Appendix Probi
• Proto-Romance language
• Palatalization in the Romance languages

Bibliography

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Notes and References

1. ;

2. . This citation covers the following bullet-point as well.

3. .

4. . This citation covers the following bullet point as well.

5. . This citation covers the following two bullet points as well.

6. apud

7. . This citation covers the following bullet-point as well.