| Xsampa: | _?\| imagefile = Pharyngealization.svg| imagesize = 200px}}| Above: | Velarized or pharyngealized | | Ipa Symbol: | ◌̴ | | Ipa Number: | 428 | | Decimal: | 820 |
Pharyngealization is a secondary articulation of consonants or vowels by which the pharynx or epiglottis is constricted during the articulation of the sound.
IPA symbols
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, pharyngealization can be indicated by one of two methods:
- A tilde or swung dash (IPA Number 428) is written through the base letter (typographic overstrike). It is the older and more generic symbol. It indicates velarization, uvularization or pharyngealization, as in pronounced as /[ᵶ]/, the guttural equivalent of pronounced as /[z]/.
- The symbol (IPA|ˤ) (IPA Number 423) - a superscript variant of pronounced as /⟨ʕ⟩/, the voiced pharyngeal approximant - is written after the base letter. It indicates specifically a pharyngealized consonant, as in pronounced as /[tˤ]/, a pharyngealized pronounced as /[t]/.
Computing codes
Since Unicode 1.1, there have been two similar superscript characters: IPA (IPA|ˤ) and Semiticist (IPA|ˁ) . U+02E4 is formally a superscript (IPA|ʕ) (= reversed glottal stop), and in the Unicode charts looks like a simple superscript (IPA|ʕ), though in some fonts it looks like a superscript reversed lower-case letter glottal stop (IPA|ɂ). U+02C1 is a typographic alternative to (ʿ) ; which is used to transliterate the Semitic consonant ayin and which = reversed (ʾ), which itself transliterates the glottal Semitic consonants aleph and hamza. In the Unicode charts U+02C1 looks like a reversed (IPA|ˀ), which is used in the IPA for glottalization. There is no parallel Unicode distinction for modifier glottal stop. The IPA Handbook lists U+02E4 as the Unicode equivalent of IPA Number 423, the dedicated IPA symbol for pharyngealization.
The superimposed tilde is assigned Unicode character U+0334. This was originally intended to combine with other letters to represent pharyngealization. However, that usage is now deprecated (though still functional), and several precomposed letters have been adopted to replace it. These are the labial consonants (IPA|ᵱ ᵬ ᵮ ᵯ) and the coronal consonants (IPA|ᵵ ᵭ ᵴ ᵶ ᵰ ᵲ ᵳ ɫ).
| Character | ʕ | ˤ | ˁ | ʿ | ̴ |
|---|
| Unicode name | | | | | |
|---|
| Character encoding | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex |
|---|
| 661 | 0295 | 740 | 02E4 | 705 | 02C1 | 703 | 02BF | 820 | 0334 | | Numeric character reference | ʕ | ʕ | ˤ | ˤ | ˁ | ˁ | ʿ | ʿ | ̴ | ̴ | |
|---|
Usage
The most well known language to use pharyngealization is Arabic where the standard four emphatic consonants pronounced as //sˤ// (ص), pronounced as //dˤ// (ض), pronounced as //tˤ// (ط) and pronounced as //ðˤ// (ظ) are distinct from their plain counterparts pronounced as //s// (س), pronounced as //d// (د), pronounced as //t// (ت) and pronounced as //ð// (ذ). Other pharyngealized sounds like pronounced as //zˤ//, pronounced as //lˤ// and pronounced as //rˤ// also appear in a number of dialects. Arabic and Syriac use secondary uvularization, which is generally not distinguished from pharyngealization, for the "emphatic" coronal consonants.
Ubykh, an extinct Northwest Caucasian language spoken in Russia and Turkey, used pharyngealization in 14 pharyngealized consonants. Chilcotin has pharyngealized consonants that trigger pharyngealization of vowels. Many languages (such as Salishan, Sahaptian) in the Plateau culture area of North America also have pharyngealization processes that are triggered by pharyngeal or pharyngealized consonants, which affect vowels.
The Tuu/"Khoisan" language Taa (or !Xóõ) has pharyngealized vowels that contrast phonemically with voiced, breathy and epiglottalized vowels. That feature is represented in the orthography by a tilde under the respective pharyngealized vowel. In Tuu languages, epiglottalized vowels are phonemic.
For many languages, pharyngealization is generally associated with more dental articulations of coronal consonants. Dark l tends to be dental or denti-alveolar, but clear l tends to be retracted to an alveolar position.
Examples of pharyngealized consonants
(Uvularized consonants are not distinguished.)
Stops
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar stop (in Chechen, Berber, Arabic, Kurmanji, Mizrahi and Classical Hebrew)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar stop (in Chechen, Tamazight and Arabic)
- pharyngealized voiceless bilabial stop pronounced as /[pˤ]/ (in Kurmanji, Chechen and Ubykh)
- pharyngealized voiced bilabial stop pronounced as /[bˤ]/ (in Chechen, Ubykh, Siwa, Shihhi Arabic and Iraqi Arabic, allophonic in Adyghe and Kabardian)
- pharyngealized voiceless uvular stop pronounced as /[qˤ]/ (in Ubykh, Tsakhur, and Archi)
- pharyngealized voiced uvular stop pronounced as /[ɢˤ]/ (in Tsakhur)
- pharyngealized glottal stop pronounced as /[ʔˤ]/ (in Shihhi Arabic; allophonic in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless velar plosive pronounced as /[kˤ]/ (in Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiced velar plosive pronounced as /[ɡˤ]/ (in Sorani)
Fricatives
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar sibilant (in Chechen, Kurmanji, Arabic, Classical Hebrew and Northern Berber)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar sibilant (in Chechen, Berber, a number of Arabic dialects and Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiceless postalveolar fricative pronounced as /[ʃˤ]/ (in Kabyle and Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiced postalveolar fricative pronounced as /[ʒˤ]/ (in Kabyle and Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless dental fricative pronounced as /[θˤ]/ (in Zenaga, Shawiya and Shehri)
- pharyngealized voiced dental fricative (in Arabic Arabic: ظ, and as pronounced as /[θ̬ˤ]/, a variant pronunciation in Mehri)
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar lateral fricative pronounced as /[ɬˤ]/
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar lateral fricative (in Soqotri, a variant pronunciation in Mehri, and postulated for Classical Arabic)
- pharyngealized voiceless labiodental fricative pronounced as /[fˤ]/ (in Sorani)
- pharyngealized voiced labiodental fricative pronounced as /[vˤ]/ (in Ubykh)
- pharyngealized voiceless uvular fricative pronounced as /[χˤ]/ (in Ubykh, Tsakhur, Archi and Bzyb Abkhaz)
- pharyngealized voiced uvular fricative pronounced as /[ʁˤ]/ (in Ubykh, Tsakhur and Archi)
- pharyngealized voiceless glottal fricative pronounced as /[hˤ]/ (in Tsakhur)
Affricates
Trills
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar trill pronounced as /[rˁ]/ (in Kabyle, Chechen and Siwa)
Nasals
Approximants
- pharyngealized labialized velar approximant pronounced as /[wˤ]/ (in Shihhi Arabic, Chechen and Ubykh)
- pharyngealized alveolar lateral approximant pronounced as /[lˤ]/ (in Kabyle, Chechen, and Northern Standard Dutch)
- pharyngealized labialized postalveolar approximant (an variant in American English)
- pharyngealized velar approximant pronounced as /[ɹ̈ˤ]/, with the body of the tongue bunched up at the velum (in some dialects of American English and Dutch)
Examples of pharyngealized vowels
- pharyngealized open-mid back rounded vowel pronounced as /[ɔˤ]/ in Northern Standard Dutch
- pharyngealized vowels pronounced as /[ɪˤ ɜˤ ʊˤ ɛˤ ~ æˤ ɐˤ ~ aˤ ɔˤ aˤ ~ ɑˤ]/ in the Air Tamajeq language
- pharyngealized vowels pronounced as /[iˤ uˤ oˤ ɑˤ]/ in Even
- pharyngealized vowels pronounced as /[iˤ uˤ eˤ əˤ oˤ aˤ]/ in Tsakhur
- pharyngealized vowels pronounced as /[iˤ uˤ ɛˤ ɔˤ ɑˤ]/ in Udi
- pharyngealized vowels pronounced as /[ĩˤ ũˤ ãˤ iˀˤ uˀˤ ɛˀˤ ɔˀˤ aˀˤ]/ in Mambay (Mangbai)
- pharyngealized vowels pronounced as /[iˤ uˤ eˤ oˤ aˤ]/ in ǃXóõ
See also
References
- Book: Ladefoged
, Peter
. 2005. Vowels and Consonants. Second. Blackwell. Peter Ladefoged.
- Recasens. Daniel. Espinosa. Aina. 2005. Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 35. 1. 1–25. 10.1017/S0025100305001878. 14140079.
- Book: International Phonetic Association. 1999. Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press. International Phonetic Association.
Further reading
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