A pharyngeal consonant is a consonant that is articulated primarily in the pharynx. Some phoneticians distinguish upper pharyngeal consonants, or "high" pharyngeals, pronounced by retracting the root of the tongue in the mid to upper pharynx, from (ary)epiglottal consonants, or "low" pharyngeals, which are articulated with the aryepiglottic folds against the epiglottis at the entrance of the larynx, as well as from epiglotto-pharyngeal consonants, with both movements being combined.
Stops and trills can be reliably produced only at the epiglottis, and fricatives can be reliably produced only in the upper pharynx. When they are treated as distinct places of articulation, the term radical consonant may be used as a cover term, or the term guttural consonants may be used instead.
Pharyngeal consonants can trigger effects on neighboring vowels. Instead of uvulars, which nearly always trigger retraction, pharyngeals tend to trigger lowering. For example, in Moroccan Arabic, pharyngeals tend to lower neighboring vowels (corresponding to the formant 1).[1] Meanwhile, in Chechen, it causes lowering as well, in addition to centralization and lengthening of the segment /a/.[2]
In addition, consonants and vowels may be secondarily pharyngealized. Also, strident vowels are defined by an accompanying epiglottal trill.
Pharyngeal/epiglottal consonants in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA):
| IPA | Description | Example | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Language | Orthography | IPA | Meaning | |||
| pronounced as /ʡ/ | voiceless* pharyngeal (epiglottal) plosive | Aghul, Richa dialect[3] | йагьІ | pronounced as /[jaʡ]/ | 'center' | |
| pronounced as /ʜ/ | voiceless pharyngeal (epiglottal) trill | хІач | pronounced as /[ʜatʃ]/ | 'apple' | ||
| pronounced as /ʢ/ | voiced pharyngeal (epiglottal) trill | Іекв | pronounced as /[ʢakʷ]/ | 'light' | ||
| pronounced as /ħ/ | voiceless pharyngeal fricative | Arabic | Arabic: '''حَـ'''ر | pronounced as /[ħar]/ | 'heat' | |
| pronounced as /ʕ/ | voiced pharyngeal fricative | Arabic: '''عـ'''ين | pronounced as /[ʕajn]/ | 'eye' | ||
| pronounced as /ʡ̯/ | pharyngeal (epiglottal) flap | Dahalo | pronounced as /[nd̠oːʡ̆o]/ | 'mud' | ||
| pronounced as /ʕ̞/ | pharyngeal approximant | Danish | ravn | pronounced as /[ʕ̞ɑʊ̯ˀn]/ | 'raven' | |
| pronounced as /ʡʼ/ | pharyngeal (epiglottal) ejective | Dargwa | ||||
| pronounced as /ʡ͡ʜ/ | Voiceless epiglottal affricate | Haida (Hydaburg Dialect) | x̱ung[4] | [ʡ͡ʜuŋ] | 'father' | |
| pronounced as /ʡ͡ʢ/ | Voiced epiglottal affricate | Somali[5] | cad | [ʡʢaʔ͡t] | 'white' | |
*A voiced epiglottal stop may not be possible. When an epiglottal stop becomes voiced intervocalically in Dahalo, for example, it becomes a tap. Phonetically, however, both voiceless and voiced affricates and off-glides are attested: pronounced as /[ʡħ, ʡʕ]/ (Esling 2010: 695).
** Although traditionally placed in the fricative row of the IPA chart, pronounced as /[ʕ]/ is usually an approximant. Frication is difficult to produce or to distinguish because the voicing in the glottis and the constriction in the pharynx are so close to each other (Esling 2010: 695, after Laufer 1996). The IPA symbol is ambiguous, but no language distinguishes fricative and approximant at this place of articulation. For clarity, the lowering diacritic may used to specify that the manner is approximant (pronounced as /[ʕ̞]/) and a raising diacritic to specify that the manner is fricative (pronounced as /[ʕ̝]/).
The Hydaburg dialect of Haida has a trilled epiglottal pronounced as /[ʜ]/ and a trilled epiglottal affricate pronounced as /[ʡʜ]/~pronounced as /[ʡʢ]/. (There is some voicing in all Haida affricates, but it is analyzed as an effect of the vowel.)
For transcribing disordered speech, the extIPA provides symbols for upper-pharyngeal stops, ⟨pronounced as /ꞯ/⟩ and ⟨⟩.
The IPA first distinguished epiglottal consonants in 1989, with a contrast between pharyngeal and epiglottal fricatives, but advances in laryngoscopy since then have caused specialists to re-evaluate their position. Since a trill can be made only in the pharynx with the aryepiglottic folds (in the pharyngeal trill of the northern dialect of Haida, for example), and incomplete constriction at the epiglottis, as would be required to produce epiglottal fricatives, generally results in trilling, there is no contrast between (upper) pharyngeal and epiglottal based solely on place of articulation. Esling (2010) thus restores a unitary pharyngeal place of articulation, with the consonants being described by the IPA as epiglottal fricatives differing from pharyngeal fricatives in their manner of articulation rather than in their place:
Edmondson et al. distinguish several subtypes of pharyngeal consonant.[6] Pharyngeal or epiglottal stops and trills are usually produced by contracting the aryepiglottic folds of the larynx against the epiglottis. That articulation has been distinguished as aryepiglottal. In pharyngeal fricatives, the root of the tongue is retracted against the back wall of the pharynx. In a few languages, such as Achumawi,[7] Amis of Taiwan[8] and perhaps some of the Salishan languages, the two movements are combined, with the aryepiglottic folds and epiglottis brought together and retracted against the pharyngeal wall, an articulation that has been termed epiglotto-pharyngeal. The IPA does not have diacritics to distinguish this articulation from standard aryepiglottals; Edmondson et al. use the ad hoc, somewhat misleading, transcriptions (IPA|ʕ͡ʡ) and (IPA|ʜ͡ħ).[6] There are, however, several diacritics for subtypes of pharyngeal sound among the Voice Quality Symbols.
Although upper-pharyngeal plosives are not found in the world's languages, apart from the rear closure of some click consonants, they occur in disordered speech. See voiceless upper-pharyngeal plosive and voiced upper-pharyngeal plosive.
Pharyngeals are known primarily from three areas of the world:
There are scattered reports of pharyngeals elsewhere, as in:
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
pronounced as /link/
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ʡ] ~ [ʢ], [ʜ]
[ħ]
[ħ]
[ʕ]
[ʕ]
[ħ]
[ʕ]
[ʕ]
[ʕ]
[ħ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ħ], [ʕ]
[ʕ]
[ʕ]
The fricatives and trills (the pharyngeal and epiglottal fricatives) are frequently conflated with pharyngeal fricatives in literature. That was the case for Dahalo and Northern Haida, for example, and it is likely to be true for many other languages. The distinction between these sounds was recognized by IPA only in 1989, and it was little investigated until the 1990s.
pronounced as /navigation/