Santa language explained

The Santa language, also known as Dongxiang, is a Mongolic language spoken by the Dongxiang people in Northwest China.

Dialects

There are no dialects in strict sense, but three local varieties (tuyu) can be found: Suonanba (ca. 50% of all Dongxiang speakers), Wangjiaji (ca. 30% of all Dongxiang speakers) and Sijiaji (ca. 20% of all Dongxiang speakers).

Phonology

Compared to other Mongolic languages, there is no vowel harmony, except for a handful of suffixes. However, the rules governing this phenomenon are by far not as strict as those of Mongolian.

Consonants

Santa has 29 consonants:

		Labial	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
Plosive		pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/			pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/
		pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/			pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/
Fricative		pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/		pronounced as /ink/
				(pronounced as /ink/)			pronounced as /ink/
Affricate			(pronounced as /ink/)	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/
			(pronounced as /ink/)	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/
Nasal		pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/			pronounced as /ink/
Approximant		pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/		pronounced as /ink/
Trill			pronounced as /ink/

• The aspirated stops pronounced as //pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, qʰ//, at varying degrees, tend to be affricated before close vowels as pronounced as /[p͡ɸʰ, t͡θʰ, k͡xʰ, q͡χʰ]/ respectively:
  • pronounced as //qʰ/ → [q͡χʰ]/: This has the most noticeable affrication, seen in ghudogvo pronounced as /[q͡χʰutoˈʁo]/ (knife).
  • pronounced as //pʰ/ → [p͡ɸʰ]/: Still commonly affricated, e.g. pixie pronounced as /[p͡ɸʰi̥ˈɕi̯ɛ]/ (belt).
  • pronounced as //tʰ/ → [t͡θʰ]/: Affrication is salient, but seems to be more apparent with pronounced as /[ɯ]/ than pronounced as /[u]/, as in tiigha pronounced as /[t͡θʰɯ̥ˈqɑ]/ (chicken).
  • pronounced as //kʰ/ → [k͡xʰ]/: This consonant is the least affricated, but is still attested in kiqie pronounced as /[k͡xʰi̥ˈt͡ɕi̯ɛ]/ (to lie down).
• Likewise, before non-close vowels non-aspirated stops do not show affrication e.g. da pronounced as /[tʰɑ]/ (to guess), korolon pronounced as /[kʰoroˈlõŋ]/ (footprint), or khalun pronounced as /[qʰɑˈlũŋ]/ (hot).
• Phonemes pronounced as //t͡sʰ, t͡s, ʐ// are only found in loanwords:
  • pronounced as //t͡sʰ// is only found in Chinese-derived words, as in cai pronounced as //t͡sʰɑj// (vegetable; from Chinese Chinese: 菜 Chinese: cài). It is frequently deaffricated to the native pronounced as /[s]/.
  • pronounced as //t͡s// is found within Chinese and Persian borrowings, with Persian Persian: زمین Persian: zamin (earth) rendered as zemin pronounced as //t͡səˈmi(ŋ)//.
  • pronounced as //ʐ// in the same way is seen in words of Chinese and Arabic origin, as in renshen pronounced as //ʐəŋˈʂəŋ// (ginseng; Chinese Chinese: 人參 Chinese: rénshēn).
• The nasals pronounced as //n, ŋ// assimilate to pronounced as /[m]/ before labials, as in unba pronounced as //unˈpɑ/ → [ũmˈpɑ]/ (to swim) and banban pronounced as //pɑŋˈpɑŋ/ → [pɑ̃mˈpɑ̃ŋ]/ (cudgel) respectively. pronounced as //ŋ// also has another allophone pronounced as /link/ before uvulars, cf. zhangha pronounced as //t͡ʂɑŋˈqɑ/ → [t͡ʂɑ̃ɴˈqɑ]/ (walnut).
• Nasals are commonly deleted in the coda, which is an areal feature around the border between Gansu and Qinghai. Although it is not restricted to word-final situations, it is rarer to find deletion there as the following consonantal onsets somehow reinforce the nasal. It should also be noted that vowels preceding nasal consonants are also nasalized themselves.
• The central approximants pronounced as //j, w// are fricativized pronounced as /[{{IPAlink|ʝ}}, {{IPAlink|v}}]/ when syllable-initial, mainly before close vowels. pronounced as //w// can further be found before front vowels and even low back vowels. An example of fricatization for each is yibai pronounced as /[ˈʝipɛi̯]/ (one hundred) and weila pronounced as /[və̝i̯ˈlɑ]/ (to cry). This phenomenon can also be found in neighboring languages, including Dungan and Monguor.
• pronounced as //ʁ//, which is usually realized as a fricative, can be pronounced as an approximant pronounced as /[ʁ̞]/ in fast speech.
• pronounced as //r// is usually a trill, and length is dependent on the speed of speech; similarly in rapid speech it can become a tap pronounced as /link/.

Vowels

Dongxiang has 7 vowels. Unlike other neighboring Mongolic languages, it has limited vowel harmony and no distinctions of vowel length.

! rowspan="2"

Front	Central		Back
Close	pronounced as /ink/			pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/
Mid		pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/		pronounced as /ink/
Open				pronounced as /ink/

• pronounced as //i//, which is usually a close front vowel, has a backened allophone pronounced as /link/ after retroflex consonants, and a slightly opened one pronounced as /link/ after alveolar affricates and fricatives. Compare chi pronounced as /[t͡ʂʰɨ]/ (you [2nd sing.]) with misi pronounced as /[miˈsɪ]/ (to fly).
• Close vowels are devoiced when in an unstressed initial syllable and between voiceless consonants, for example: chighin pronounced as /[t͡ʂʰɨ̥ˈqə̃ŋ]/ (ear), sidara pronounced as /[sɪ̥tɑˈrɑ]/ (to catch fire) and khidun pronounced as /[q͡χʰɯ̥ˈtũŋ]/ (hard). This is not the case though before a voiced consonant, especially if it is of native Mongolic origin, as evidenced with chila pronounced as /[t͡ʂʰɨˈlɑ]/ (to be exhausted) and suma pronounced as /[suˈmɑ]/ (arrow).
  • In Chinese loans, devoicing is optional, i.e. chugui (cupboard; from Chinese: 櫥櫃 Chinese: chúguì) can be pronounced either pronounced as /[t͡ʂʰ'''u̥'''ˈku̯ə̝i̯]/ or pronounced as /[t͡ʂʰ'''u'''ˈku̯ə̝i̯]/.
  • The mid-central vowel pronounced as //ə// has also been recorded voiceless in the aforementioned environment: pese pronounced as /[pʰə̥ˈsɛ]/ (again).
  • Devoicing of pronounced as //i// can also occur regardless of the following sound and in non-initial syllables, under the condition it occurs after pronounced as //s//: basi pronounced as /[ˈpɑsɪ̥]/ (tiger) or kewosila pronounced as /[kʰəˌwɑsɪ̥ˈlɑ]/ (children). Interestingly, it is not often the case, as in bositu pronounced as /[pʷosɪˈtʰu]/ (pregnant).
• pronounced as //ɚ// is always a syllabified as its own, as in ershi pronounced as /[ɚ.ʂɨ]/ (twenty), with the exception of one Arabic loanword with glottal pronounced as //h// as the onset: ruhher pronounced as /[ʐu.hɚ]/ (spirit; from Arabic: رُوح Arabic: rūḥ).
• pronounced as //o// is often pronounced with a considerable degree of labialization pronounced as /[ʷo]/, however this can be inconsistent, even in the same utterance; cf. olien pronounced as /[ʷoˈli̯ɛ̃n]/ (cloud) vs. onghono pronounced as /[õɴqõˈno]/ (to shout).
• When stressed, pronounced as //ə// is typically realized as mid-front pronounced as /link/: enzhegve pronounced as /[ə̃nt͡ʂəˈʁɛ]/ (donkey). Before pronounced as //ŋ//, pronounced as /link/ is used instead: amen pronounced as /[ɑˈmɤ̃ŋ]/ (rice). Otherwise in unstressed syllables it is mid-central pronounced as /[ə]/.
• pronounced as /[ɑ]/ is typically an open back vowel, e.g. apa pronounced as /[ɑˈpʰɑ]/ (barley), but before alveolar nasals it is fronted to pronounced as /link/; an example is dan pronounced as /[tæ̃n]/ (carrying pole with loads). Before velar nasals, as in dan pronounced as /[tɑ̃ŋ]/ ([political] party), the back form is used.

Glides

Although true diphthongal sequences (i.e. complex vowel combinations) do not exist in Santa, combinations with the vowels pronounced as //u, ə, ɑ// and the glides pronounced as //j, w// do. The glides are phonetically realized as non-syllabic vowels pronounced as /[i̯, u̯]/ and the vowels have the following phonetic realizations below, regardless of any previous allophonic rules as mentioned above.

! rowspan="2"

Vowel + Glide	Glide + Vowel	Additional
pronounced as //j//		pronounced as //w//
pronounced as //u//	pronounced as //j//	—	pronounced as //ju//	—	—
	pronounced as //w//	—	—	—	—
pronounced as //ə//	pronounced as //j//	pronounced as //əj//	pronounced as //jə//	—	—
	pronounced as //w//	pronounced as //əw//	—	pronounced as //wəj//	—
pronounced as //ɑ//	pronounced as //j//	pronounced as //ɑj//	pronounced as //jɑ//	—	pronounced as //jɑw//
	pronounced as //w//	pronounced as //ɑw//	pronounced as //wɑ//	pronounced as //wɑj//	—

Distinct phonetic vowel realizations (note that vowels in other environments take the cardinal form):

• pronounced as //ə//:
  • Before pronounced as //j//, the vowel is raised to pronounced as /[ə̝]/, e.g. khighei pronounced as /[q͡χʰɯ̥ˈqə̝i̯]/ (pig), falling somewhere in between pronounced as /[ə]/ and pronounced as /[i]/.
    • If also after pronounced as //w//, the vowel is optionally dropped, as in ghuilu pronounced as /[qu̯(ə̝)i̯ˈlu]/ (to become).
  • After pronounced as //j//, it is pronounced like stressed pronounced as /[ɛ]/; for instance nie pronounced as /[ni̯ɛ]/ (one) or bierei pronounced as /[pi̯ɛˈri]/ (wife).
  • Before pronounced as //w//, backness is often applied so that it varies between pronounced as /[ə~ɤ]/: hotou pronounced as /[xʷoˈtəu̯~xʷoˈtɤu̯]/ (maggot).
• pronounced as //ɑ//:
  • Before pronounced as //j//, it may be raised, varying from pronounced as /[ɑ~ɛ]/, see bai pronounced as /[pɑi̯~pɛi̯]/ (to stop), kuaisun pronounced as /[kʰu̯ɑi̯ˈsũŋ~kʰu̯ɛi̯ˈsũŋ]/ (navel).
  • Before pronounced as //w//, the vowel is often raised and backed, ranging from pronounced as /[ɑ~o]/ in nao pronounced as /[nɑu̯~nou̯]/ (to hit the mark), oqiao pronounced as /[ʷoˈt͡ɕʰi̯ɑu̯~ʷoˈt͡ɕʰi̯ou̯]/ (old).

Phonotactics

The general syllable template for Santa is (C)(G)V(G/N), where the brackets represent optional phonemes. C represents any consonant apart from pronounced as //ŋ// or a glide, G is one of the glides pronounced as //j, w//, V is a vowel and G/N is either a glide or a nasal pronounced as //n, ŋ// (occasionally also pronounced as //r//). However, there are further constraints to this scheme:

• The obstruents pronounced as //pʰ, qʰ, f, x, h// in words of Monogolic origin can only be found at the beginning of words.
• Also, pronounced as //ɕ// can occur at any position syllable-initially, but not after nasals of glides.
• pronounced as //r, ʁ// on the other hand can only occur after vowels. It is also possible for pronounced as //ʁ// to occur after nasals, but not pronounced as //r// due to the sonorant rule.
• pronounced as //ʂ, ɕ, t͡ɕ, m// can occur word-initially but between syllables only after vowels.
• It is impossible for non-compounded words of Mongolic origin for a sonorant (with the exception of the glide pronounced as /[i̯]/) to follow a nasal after a syllable boundary. However, three exceptions exist: manlou pronounced as /[mɑ̃ŋˈləu̯]/ (forehead), danlei pronounced as /[tæ̃nˈləi̯]/ (palate) and chanlie pronounced as /[t͡ʂʰæ̃nˈli̯ə]/ (to listen).
  • Words borrowed from Mandarin Chinese do not follow this rule, seen with rinmin pronounced as /[ʐəŋˈmin]/ (people; from Chinese: 人民 Chinese: rénmín).

Stress

The majority of words in Santa are stressed on the final syllable. Examples include yawu pronounced as //jɑˈwu// (to walk), funiegvan pronounced as //funjəˈʁɑŋ// (fox) and agven pronounced as //ɑˈʁəŋ// (village). Stress also shifts to the suffix when added to a word: funiegvan-ni pronounced as //funjəʁɑŋˈni// (fox, genitive case), agven-de pronounced as //ɑʁəŋˈdə// (village, locative case).

However, several exceptions to this rule exist:

• Certain suffix clitics prevent the stress from shifting to the final syllable, as seen in 2=yawu=ne pronounced as //jɑˈwunə// (walk!, imperative), 2=tomo=ghala pronounced as //tʰoˈmoqɑlɑ// (hammer, instrumental). However, not every clitic follows this rule.
• The suffixes +jiwo and +senu receive penultimate stress: jawu+jiwo pronounced as //jɑwuˈt͡ʂiwo// (to walk, progressive) and ire+senu pronounced as //irəˈsənu// (as soon as one comes).
• Similarly, basi pronounced as //ˈpɑsi// (tiger) and bosi pronounced as //ˈposi// (cloth) are stressed on the initial syllable. There is a minimal pair with bosi where the stress on the final syllable (pronounced as //poˈsi//)means 'to wake up'.
• Loanwords may also violate the final stress rule; this is discussed below.

In loanwords

In Chinese loanwords, stress is not predictable; this is likely due to the tonal influence from the original pronunciation. However, these tones are based on the dialects of the Hui people rather than the standard dialect. Examples of non-final stress include hushi pronounced as //ˈxuʂi// (nurse; from Chinese: 护士 Chinese: hùshì), daozi pronounced as //ˈdɑwt͡si// (rice paddy; from Chinese: 稻子 Chinese: dàozi) and dadou pronounced as //ˈdɑdəw// (soybean; from Chinese: 大豆 Chinese: dàdòu). Minimal pairs, though uncommon, also exist. One example is shizi pronounced as //ˈʂit͡si// (persimmon; from Chinese: 柿子 Chinese: shìzi) and shizi pronounced as //ʂiˈt͡si// (lion; from Chinese: 狮子 Chinese: shīzi).

There are a number of Arabic loanwords which also violate ultimate stress; these include aghili pronounced as //ˈɑqili// (wisdom; from Arabic: عَقِيْل Arabic: ʿaqīl), mehheri pronounced as //ˈməhəri// (dowry; from Arabic: مَهْر⁩ Arabic: mahr), ghalebu pronounced as //qɑˈləbu// (body, form; from Arabic: قَالَب⁩ Arabic: qālab), etc.

Some words with unknown origin may also stress on other syllables, including tonghori pronounced as //ˈtʰoŋqori// (wild goose), dawala pronounced as //ˈtɑwɑlɑ// (urinary bladder) and bawa pronounced as //ˈpɑwɑ// (great-grandfather).

Grammar

Morphology

Plural marking

• -la (remaining of nouns)

• -sla/-sila (certain nouns and pronouns)

• -pi (relatives)

Cases

Santa has 6 cases.

!Case!Marker!Example!Meaning

Nominative	-∅	morei holuwe	the horse ran
Genitive-accusative	-ni (-yi)	bula-ni usu	water of the spring
Dative-locative-benefactive	-de	ula-de khirei	climb the mountain
Ablative-comparative	-se	udani hon-se gaowe	better than last year
Comitative (joint case)	-le	chi ibura-le hhantu echi	you go together with Ibura
Comitative (aspect case)	-re	bi chima-re sanane	I want to settle accounts with you
Sociative-instrumental	-gh(u)ala	khidei-ghala kielie	speak in Chinese
Locative-prosecutive	-gvun	moronghizha-gvun nie uzhe	look along the river

Possessive

Pronoun

!Word!Note!Meaning

morei-mini	(also -miyi, -miy)	my horse
morei-matanni	(also -matayi, -matay)	our (inclusive) horse
morei-bijienni	(also -bijieyi, -bijiey)	our (exclusive) horse
morei-chini	(also -chiyis, -chiy)	your horse
morei-tani	(also -tayi, -tay)	your (plural) horse
morei-ni		him/her/their (any 3rd person pronoun) horse

Reflexive

!Particle!Word!Meaning

-ne

chi gaga-ne uru

you call your elder brother to come

Pronoun declension

1st person

Case	Singular	Plural
		Exclusive	Inclusive
Nominative	bi / orun (quotation)	bijien	matan / oruntan (quotation)
Genitive-accusative	mi-ni / nama-ni (namiyi)	bijien-ni	matan-ni / ma-ni
Dative-locative	nama-de / ma-de	bijien-de	matan-de
Ablative-comparative	nama-se / ma-se	bijien-se	matan-se
Comitative (joint case)	nama-le / ma-le	bijien-le	matan-le
Sociative-instrumental	bi-ghala	bijien-ghala	matan-ghala

2nd person

Case	Singular	Plural
Nominative	chi	ta / tan
Genitive-accusative	chi-ni	ta-ni
Dative-locative	chima-de	tan-de
Ablative-comparative	chima-se / cha-se	tan-se
Comitative (joint case)	chima-le	tan-le
Sociative-instrumental	chi-ghala	ta-ghala

3rd person

Case	Singular			Plural
Nominative	hhe	tere	egven	hhela	terela	egvenla
Genitive-accusative				hhesila	teresila	egvesila
Dative-locative	hhe-ni	tere-ni	egen-ni	hhela-ni	terela-ni	egvenla-ni
Ablative-comparative	hhe-nde	tere-(n)de / ten-de	egven-de	hhela-de	terela-de	egvenla-de
Comitative (joint case)	hhe-nse	tere-(n)se	egven-se	hhela-se	terela-se	egvenla-se
Sociative-instrumental	hhe-nle	tere-le	egven-le	hhela-le	terela-le	egvenla-le
Sociative instrumental	hhe-ghala	tere-ghala	egven-ghala	hhela-ghala	terela-ghala	egvenla-ghala

Verb suffix

Active verb

Type category (mood or modality)

Case	Particle	Example	Meaning
Imperative	-ye	matanghala yawu-ye	let's go (dual)
	-gie	chini gien ghujingvan gaoda-gie	may your illness heal quickly
Declarative	-we	bi uzhe-we	I watched

Aspect category (manner or state of verb action)

Aspect	Particle	Example	Meaning
Perfect	-we	bi bazade echi-we	I have gone to Linxia
Imperfect	-ne	chi khala echi-ne	where are you going?
Continuative	-zhiwe (-zho)	ana-miyi budan gie-zhiwe	my mum is cooking

Voice category (relationship between action and its subject)

Voice	Particle	Example	Meaning
Active voice	-∅
Causative voice	-gva	bai-gva	to establish
Cooperative voice	-ndu	jie-ndu	to eat

Numeral: Singular has no suffix, plural suffix is -ndu, the same as Cooperative voice.

Numbers: Singular has no additional component, plural's additional component is -ndu, the same as the additional component for Cooperative voice.

Adverbial verb

Adverb	Particle	Example	Meaning
Coordinative adverbial verb	-zhi	shira-zhi ijie	to roast and eat
Repetitive adverbial verb	-n	wila-n wila-n yawulawe	walking while crying and crying
Purpose adverbial verb	-le	bi nie uzhe-le irewe	I came to take a look
Separative adverbial verb	-dene (-de)	chi ijie-dene bi ijieye	you eat first, then I'll eat
Conditional adverbial verb	-se	ghura bao-se bi ulie irene	if it rains, I won't come
Choice, Limit adverbial verb	-tala	khara olu-tala wilie giewe	work until it gets dark
Concessive adverbial verb	-senu	eqiemagva bosi-senu shu uzhezho	read a book after getting up in the morning

Stative verb

Tense	Particle	Example	Meaning
Past	-san (-sen)	ene baodei bolu-sanwe	this wheat is ripe
Future	-ku / -wu	echi-ku mo gholowe	the road that needs to be taken is long
Present	-chin	enende sao-chin kun wainu uwe	is there anyone living here?

Existential verbs bi and wi

		bi	wi
Active verb		wai-ne	wi-we
Stative verb	Past stative verb	bi-san	wi-san
	Future stative verb	bi-ku	wi-ku
	Present stative verb	bi-chin	wi-chin
Adverbial verb	Coordinative adverbial verb	bi-zhi	wi-zhi
	Separative adverbial verb	bi-dene	wi-dene
	Conditional adverbial verb	bi-se	wi-se
	Choice, Limit adverbial verb	bi-tala	wi-tala
	Concessive adverbial verb	bi-senu	wi-senu

Tense	Particle	Example	Meaning
Speculative	bi-mu	hhen-de baer bi-mu	he might be rich
Recollective	bi-lai	hhe nasun giedun bi-lai bi matawe	I forgot how old he is

Syntax

In common with other Mongolic languages, Dongxiang is spoken as an SOV language. In Linxia, however, under the influence of the Mandarin Chinese dialects spoken by the neighbouring Hui people, sentences of the SVO type have also been observed.

Writing system

Knowledge of Arabic is widespread among the Sarta and as a result, they often use the Arabic script to write down their language informally (cf. the Xiao'erjing system that was used by Hui people); however, this has been little investigated by scholars., the official Latin alphabet for Dongxiang, developed on the basis of the Monguor alphabet, remained in the experimental stage:

Consonants!Letter!IPA!Letter!IPA!Letter!IPA

b	pronounced as //p//	g	pronounced as //k//	x	pronounced as //ɕ//
p	pronounced as //pʰ//	k	pronounced as //kʰ//	zh	pronounced as //t͡ʂ//
m	pronounced as //m//	gh	pronounced as //q//	ch	pronounced as //t͡ʂʰ//
f	pronounced as //f//	kh	pronounced as //qʰ//	sh	pronounced as //ʂ//
d	pronounced as //t//	h	pronounced as //x//	z	pronounced as //t͡s//
t	pronounced as //tʰ//	gv	pronounced as //ʁ//	c	pronounced as //t͡sʰ//
n	pronounced as //n, ŋ//	hh	pronounced as //h//	s	pronounced as //s//
l	pronounced as //l//	j	pronounced as //t͡ɕ//	w	pronounced as //w//
r	pronounced as //r, ʐ//	q	pronounced as //t͡ɕʰ//	y	pronounced as //j//

Vowels!Letter!IPA!Letter!IPA!Letter!IPA

a	pronounced as //ɑ//	u	pronounced as //u//	ie	pronounced as //jə//
e	pronounced as //ə//	ai	pronounced as //ɑj//	iu	pronounced as //ju//
er	pronounced as //ɚ//	ei	pronounced as //əj//	ua	pronounced as //wɑ//
i	pronounced as //i//	ao	pronounced as //ɑw//	ui	pronounced as //wəj//
ii	pronounced as //ɯ//	ou	pronounced as //əw//	iao	pronounced as //jɑw//
o	pronounced as //o//	ia	pronounced as //jɑ//	uai	pronounced as //wɑj//

Numerals

!Numeral!Dongxiang!IPA!Classical Mongolian

1	nie	pronounced as //njə//
2	ghua	pronounced as //qwɑ//
3	ghuran	pronounced as //quˈrɑŋ//
4	jieron	pronounced as //t͡ɕjəˈroŋ//
5	tawun	pronounced as //tʰaˈwuŋ//
6	dzigvon	pronounced as //t͡ʂiˈʁoŋ//
7	dolon	pronounced as //toˈloŋ//
8	naiman	pronounced as //nɑjˈmɑŋ//
9	yesun	pronounced as //jəˈsuŋ//
10	hharan	pronounced as //hɑˈrɑŋ//

Some numbers in Dongxiang have been heavily influenced by Mandarin. These include 30 (sanshi) and 40 (sishi). Meanwhile, both khorun pronounced as //qʰoˈruŋ// and ershi pronounced as //ˈɚʂi// are used for 20.

The Tangwang language

See main article: Tangwang language.

There are about 20,000 people in the north-eastern part Dongxiang County, who self-identify as Dongxiang or Hui people who do not speak Dongxiang, but natively speak a Dongxiang-influenced form of Mandarin Chinese. The linguist Mei W. Lee-Smith calls this the "Tangwang language", based on the names of the two largest villages (Tangjia and Wangjia, parts of Tangwang Town) where it is spoken and argues it is a creolized language. According to Lee-Smith, the Tangwang language uses mostly Mandarin words and morphemes with Dongxiang grammar. Besides Dongxiang loanwords, Tangwang also has a substantial number of Arabic and Persian loanwords.

Like Standard Mandarin, Tangwang is a tonal language, but grammatical particles, which are typically borrowed from Mandarin, but are used in the way Dongxiang morphemes would be used in Dongxiang, do not carry tones.

For example, while the Mandarin plural suffix -men (们) has only very restricted usage (it can be used with personal pronouns and some nouns related to people), Tangwang uses it, in the form -m, universally, the way Dongxiang would use its plural suffix -la. Mandarin pronoun ni (你) can be used in Tangwang as a possessive suffix (meaning "your").Unlike Mandarin, but like Dongxiang, Tangwang has grammatical cases as well (however only four of them, unlike eight in Dongxiang).

External links

• The Dongxiang Mongols and Their Language
• An example of the Dongxiang language being spoken