A Romano-Celtic temple or Latin: [[fanum]] is a sub-class of Roman temples which is found in the north-western Celtic provinces of the Roman Empire. It was the centre of worship in Gallo-Roman religion. The architecture of Romano-Celtic temples differs from classical Roman conventions, and archeological evidence demonstrates continuity with pre-Roman Celtic forms. Many temples were built on sites which had been sacred to the Celtic religion before the Roman conquest.[1]
In English historical literature, the term Romano-British temple is used for temples in Britain, while the term Gallo-Roman temple is used for sites in Gaul.
In French, Spanish, Italian and German scholarship, Celtic temples of the Roman empire are called fanums. This term is borrowed from the Latin word for the sacred plot of land on which a temple was built.
The Gaulish term for these temples was nemeton, and originally signified a sacred grove. This term was used to refer to Celtic temples until the Christianization of Gaul.[2]
The layout of a Romano-Celtic temple differed from classical Roman temples. While classical temples were rectangular buildings with a portico, a Romano-Celtic temple was square or octagonal, with an ambulatory.[3] This convention is believed to have derived from earlier Celtic wooden temples; many buildings show continuity in their layout from older temples built at the same site.[4] [3] The ambulatory was probably meant to accommodate the Celtic rite of circumambulation.[4] While most classical temples were built at towns and cities, almost all 650 Romano-Celtic temples were built in the countryside or smaller settlements.[3]
A Roman-Celtic temple consisted of a box-like or tower-like main room (cella), of variable height, surrounded by an ambulatory or veranda[5] built from stone, wood or both. The layout of these complexes were usually square or octagonal, but were sometimes circular or triangular as well. Their sizes vary greatly, with the outer ambulatory ranging from 8.5m to 22m in length[6] and the cella from 5.1m to 16m.
The cella, accessible from a door on one side, was usually roofed, as was the ambulatory, and the cella tower often rose above the height of the surrounding ambulatory or was pitched so that the two join together.[7] Ambulatories were often open, but they were also frequently enclosed by a short wall or wall-and-colonnade. Some features of Classical Roman temples were incorporated in the construction, such as Roman-style columns in the outer wall.
The internal spaces featured mosaic floors[8] and decorative wall paintings.
The main temple building usually stood within a sacred enclosure (temenos) along with other religious structures, which was usually marked off by a wall, palisade and ditch.[4]
Temples, as centres of religious ceremonies and festivals, attracted people from surrounding areas.[9] Each temple was dedicated to one or more gods, with a statue in the cella. Votive objects such as coins, pottery, statues, miniature votive figurines[10] were offered both within the building and in the surrounding ambulatory[11] and temenos, which suggests that access may have been available throughout the structure and that the external architectural components also served a purpose in the ritual environment of the temple. The temple at Woodeaton produced archeological evidence of multiple hearths within the temple superstructure, suggesting that fire was used in religious worship at this site.
Priests performed religious ceremonies within the temple or outside in the enclosure, although the exact daily role they played in Romano-Celtic temples is not well understood. Performing sacrifices, prayers, and overseeing festivals were key features of priesthoods throughout the Roman Empire. In Aquae Sulis (modern Bath, England), an altar was dedicated by a haruspex;[12] this religious role may have existed elsewhere in Britannia as well. Fragments of priestly regalia have been found in British excavations: a copper alloy sceptre-cap from the temple at Farley,[13] a chained headpiece or "crown" at Wanborough and a bronze crown with an adjustable band at Hockwold cum Wilton.
Gallo-Roman temples have been found throughout the region settled by the ancient Gauls, including France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Germany, in both cities and the countryside. These temples would have been closed at the end of the 4th century by late Roman imperial anti-pagan laws, but many had already been slowly abandoned during the preceding period, their cults having been neglected or the locality depopulated.[14]
Many of these temples evolved from pre-Roman temples which were built in wood and then gradually embellished. The sanctuaries of Ribement-sur-Ancre, Corent, and Saint-Georges Abbey in Boscherville are good examples that show how Celtic temples evolved. Excavations conducted by Jacques Le Maho at the site of Saint-Georges Abbey uncovered the remains of many temples: the oldest was a wooden temple without an enclosure, followed by a second temple with an enclosure, and then by a wooden temple built on a stone platform, and then finally, the fourth building was a stone fanum with an enclosure.[15]
One of the largest remaining Gallo-Roman temples is the Tower of Vesunna, which was built in Périgueux, France. It was dedicated to the goddess Vesunna of the Perocorii tribe. The architecture demonstrates a synthesis of local and Classical traditions, comprising a Celtic cella and a Roman pronaos surrounded by a low enclosure.
Far more Celtic temples have been found in Roman Britain than Classical Roman Temples. The only known example of Classical temples are Temple of Claudius[16] in Colchester, the temple of Sulis-Minerva in Bath, and other sites at Maryport, Lincoln, Gloucester, and St.Albans .[17]
Romano-Celtic temples were built across Britannia and are frequently associated with sites with recorded pre-Roman activity, such as at Jordan Hill. Temples were located in extra-mural settlements near a fort, as at Vindolanda, or along roadsides. Prominent places within a landscape were also chosen as sites for Romano-Celtic temples, such as on top of a hill like the huge Iron Age Hillfort at Maiden Castle, Dorset or on a coastal promontory such as at Brean Down, Somerset. Temples were built in both major and minor towns as well as rural sanctuaries. In towns they have been found built as both individual temples and in groups of two or more within an enclosure. At least seven temples have been identified at Camulodunum (Roman Colchester), several of which can be linked to specific deities identified with statues and inscriptions found at the sites.[18]
| Date | Plan or photo | Location | Dimensions | Dedication | Notes | Reference | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bourton Grounds | Cella: 7.6m2 | Isis | Excavated in the 1960s. A Figurine of Isis found by metal detector at a later date. | [19] | |||||
| Brean Down | align=center | Excavated in 1957-8, the temple was constructed c.AD340 and demolished c.AD390. It lies on a promontory off the Somerset coast. | [20] | ||||||
| Caerwent | Cella: 7.5m x 7m | Built in c.AD330, it stood next to the forum and basilica. | [21] | ||||||
| Chanctonbury | 50.8963°N -0.3818°W | Cella: 9m x 7m | Built on an Iron Age hillfort. | [22] | |||||
| Farley | 51.1937°N -0.4963°W | Cella: 7.3m x 7.3m Ambulatory: 14m x 14m Temenos: Diameter - c. 73m | Excavated in 1848 by Martin Tupper, and later in 1926 and definitively in 1939. Pre-Roman coinage of Verica, Epaticcus and Tincommius has been found on the site during early excavations. The temple is associated with two pottery kilns. Finds include a possible Priest's sceptre, two Roman coin hoards, a swan-head handle and pottery. | ||||||
| Gosbecks Farm | align=center | 51.8595°N -1.0436°W | Cella: 7m x 7m | Camulos | Excavated in 1842. The temple temenos stands at the west and of a much larger walled enclosure stretching 340 metres to the east. The off-central location of the temple has been held to imply that a sacred grove or tree occupied the most important position within the temenosOne of at least seven found at Roman Colchester. | ||||
| Great Chesterford | align=center | Cella: 6.7m x 6.7m | Discovered in 1847 and excavated under the direction of the Hon RC Neville. Two mosaic floors were located in the cella. The temple was re-excavated in 1978. | ||||||
| Jordan Hill | align=center | 50.6375°N -2.4271°W | Cella: 6.8m2 Temenos: 84m2 | First Excavated by J. Medhurst in 1843. The structure is in stone, with minimal evidence of an ambulatory. An early 1st century pit or shaft was associated beneath the temples structure. | |||||
| Lancing | align=center | Cella: 6.7m x 6.7m | |||||||
| Lullingstone | align=center | 51.364°N -0.1964°W | Cella: 6.4m x 5.1m | Water Deities | |||||
| Lydney Park | align=center | 51.7207°N -2.5532°W | Nodons | Excavated in the 1920s by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. The site also has evidence for iron ore extraction. | |||||
| Maiden Castle | align=center | 50.6949°N -2.4669°W | Cella: 6m x 6m | Minerva? | Built on top of an Iron Age hillfort | [23] | |||
| Nettleton | align=center | 51.4908°N -2.2578°W | Apollo Cunomaglus? | [24] | |||||
| Pagans Hill | align=center | 51.3607°N -2.6374°W | Mercury? | Excavated by Philip Rahtz in 1949-53. The temple was built in c.AD258 with an octagonal cella, but soon fell into decay. A well is associated with the temple, into which objects were deposited. It was the site of domestic occupation by the 5th Century. | [25] | ||||
| Ratham Mill | align=center | 50.8518°N -0.8521°W | Cella: 4m x 4m Ambulatory: 8.5m x 8.5m Temenos: 15.5m x 15.5m | No excavation; site seen as cropmarks. Roman pottery associated in surrounding area. Outer two walls may not have southern sides. The inner square (here identified as the cella) may, in fact, be an altar or plinth within a larger structure. | [26] | ||||
| Vindolanda | align=center | 54.9915°N -2.3631°W | Cella: 5.1m x 5.1m Ambulatory:10.8m x 10.8m | [27] | |||||
| Wicklewood | align=center | 52.5837°N 1.081°W | Cella: 8.5m x 8.5m | Discovered and excavated in 1959 | |||||
| Wimblington | align=center | 52.5238°N 0.137°W | Cella: 5.6m x 5m Ambulatory: 11m x 11m | Epona? | Excavated in 1980s, Wimblington temple comprised a stone and timber cella surrounded by a timber enclosure. Cropmarks hint at a larger earthwork surrounding the temple c50m in diameter. Finds associated with the temple site included a clay figurine of a horse (Epona?), while surface finds included various copper alloy items possibly linked to Mercury, Minerva and others. | ||||
| Woodeaton | align=center | 51.8089°N -1.2237°W | Cella: 5.8m x 5m Temenos: 45m2. | Excavated in 1952, the temple was found to have to main phases of use. In the first a clay floor and three internal hearths noted. The later phase is marked by the widening of the walls and the addition of an ambulatory. The site is associated with Iron Age activity. | [28] |