Largest prehistoric animals explained

The largest prehistoric animals include both vertebrate and invertebrate species. Many of them are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of the fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no complete specimen have been found. Their body mass, especially, is largely conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct species was subject to energetic^[1] and biomechanical constraints.^[2]

Non-mammalian synapsids (Synapsida)

Caseasaurs (Caseasauria)

The herbivorous Alierasaurus was the largest caseid and the largest amniote to have lived at the time, with an estimated length around .^[3] Cotylorhynchus hancocki is also large, with an estimated length and weight of at least ^[4] and more than .^[5]

Edaphosaurids (Edaphosauridae)

The largest edaphosaurids were Lupeosaurus at long^[6] and Edaphosaurus, which could reach even more than in length.^[7]

Sphenacodontids (Sphenacodontidae)

The biggest carnivorous synapsid of Early Permian was Dimetrodon, which could reach and .^[8] The largest members of the genus Dimetrodon were also the world's first fully terrestrial apex predators.^[9]

Tappenosauridae

The Middle Permian Tappenosaurus was estimated at in length, nearly as large as the largest dinocephalians.^[10]

Therapsids (Therapsida)

Anomodonts (Anomodontia)

The plant-eating dicynodont Lisowicia bojani is the largest-known of all non-mammalian synapsids, at about long, tall, and in body mass.^{[11] [12] [13]} However, in 2019 its weight was later more reliably estimated by modelling its mass from the estimated total volume of its body. These estimates varied depending on the girth of its rib cage and the amount of soft tissue modelled around the skeleton, with an overall average weight of 5.9 metric tons (6.5 short tons), and a lowermost estimate with minimal body fat and other tissues at 4.9 metric tons (5.4 short tons) and a maximum of 7 metric tons (7.7 short tons) at its bulkiest.^[14]

Biarmosuchians (Biarmosuchia)

The Late Permian Eotitanosuchus (a possible synonym to Biarmosuchus^[15]) may have been over in length, possibly up to and more than in weight for adult specimens.^[15]

Dinocephalians (Dinocephalia)

The largest carnivorous non-mammalian synapsids was the dinocephalian Anteosaurus, which was long, and weighed .^{[16] [17]} Fully grown Titanophoneus from the same family Anteosauridae likely had a skull of long.^[17]

Gorgonopsians (Gorgonopsia)

Inostrancevia latifrons is the largest known gorgonopsian, with a skull length of more than, a total length approaching and a mass of .^[18] Rubidgea atrox is the largest African gorgonopsian, with skull of nearly long.^[19] Other large gorgonopsians include Dinogorgon with skull of ~ long,^[20] Leontosaurus with skull of almost long,^[19] and Sycosaurus with skull of ~ long.^[19]

Therocephalians (Therocephalia)

The largest of therocephalians is Scymnosaurus,^[21] which reached a size of the modern hyena.^[22]

Non-mammalian cynodonts (Cynodontia)

• The largest known non-mammalian cynodont is Scalenodontoides, a traversodontid, which had a maximum skull length of approximately 61.7cm (24.3inches) based on a fragmentary specimen.^[23]
• Paceyodon davidi was the largest of morganucodontans, cynodonts close to mammals. It is known by a right lower molariform in length, which is bigger than molariforms of all other morganucodontans.^[24]
• The largest known docodont was Castorocauda, almost in length.

Mammals (Mammalia)

Non-therian mammals

Gobiconodonts (Gobiconodonta)

The largest gobiconodont and the largest well-known Mesozoic mammal was Repenomamus.^{[25] [26] [27] [28] [29]} The known adult of Repenomamus giganticus reached a total length of around 1m (03feet) and an estimated mass of 12-.^[27] With such parameters it surpassed in size several small theropod dinosaurs of the Early Cretaceous.^[30] Gobiconodon was also a large mammal,^[29] it weighed,^[27] had a skull of in length, and had in presacral body length.^[31]

Multituberculates (Multituberculata)

The largest multituberculate, Taeniolabis taoensis is the largest non-therian mammal known, at a weight possibly exceeding .^[32]

Monotremes (Monotremata)

• The largest known monotreme (egg-laying mammal) ever was the extinct long-beaked echidna species known as Murrayglossus hacketti, known from a couple of bones found in Western Australia. It was the size of a sheep, weighing probably up to .^[33]
• The largest known ornithorhynchid is Obdurodon tharalkooschild, it was even larger than -long Monotrematum sudamericanum.^[34]
• Kollikodon ritchiei was likely the largest monotreme in the Mesozoic. Its body length could be up to a .^[35]

Metatherians (Metatheria)

• The largest non-marsupial metatherian was Thylacosmilus atrox, weighing 80to,^{[36] [37]} one estimate suggesting even 150kg (330lb).^[38] Proborhyaenid Proborhyaena gigantea is estimated to weigh over 50kg (110lb) and possibly reached 150kg (330lb).^[39] Australohyaena is another large metatherian, weighing up to .^[40]
• Stagodontid mammal Didelphodon was one of the largest Mesozoic metatherians and all Cretaceous mammals. Its skull could reach over in length^[41] and a weight of complete animal was .^[42]

Marsupials (Marsupialia)

• The largest known marsupial, and the largest metatherian, is the extinct Diprotodon, about long, standing tall and weighing up to .^[43] Fellow vombatiform Palorchestes azael was similar in length being around, with body mass estimates indicating it could exceed .^[44]
• The largest known carnivorous marsupial was Thylacoleo carnifex. Measurements taken from a number of specimens show they averaged in weight.^{[45] [46]}
• The largest known kangaroo was an as yet unnamed species of Macropus, estimated to weigh,^[47] larger than the largest known specimen of Procoptodon, which could grow up to and weigh .^[48] Some species from the genus Sthenurus were similar in size or a bit larger than the extant grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus).^[49]
• The largest potoroid ever recorded was Borungaboodie, which was nearly 30% bigger than the largest living species and weighted up to .^[50]

Non-placental eutherians

Cimolestans (Cimolesta)

The largest known cimolestan is Coryphodon, high at the shoulder, long^{[51] [52]} and up to 700kg (1,500lb) of mass.^[53] Barylambda was also a huge mammal, at .^[54] Wortmania and Psittacotherium from the group Taeniodonta were among the largest mammals of the Early Paleocene.^[55] Lived as soon as half a million years after K–Pg boundary, Wortmania reached in body mass. Psittacotherium, which appeared two million years later, reached .^[55]

Leptictids (Leptictida)

The largest leptictid ever discovered is Leptictidium tobieni from the Middle Eocene of Germany. It had a skull long, head with trunk long, and tail long.^[56] Close European relatives from the same family Pseudorhyncocyonidae had skulls of in length.^[56]

Tenrecs and allies (Afroscida)

The larger of the two species of bibymalagasy (Plesiorycteropus madagascariensis), extinct tenrec relatives from Madagascar, is estimated to have weighed from 10 to 18 kilograms (21 to 40 lb).^[57]

Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)

• The largest known land-dwelling artiodactyl was Hippopotamus gorgops with a length of, a height of, and a weight of .^[58]
• Daeodon and similar in size and morphology Paraentelodon^[59] were the largest-known entelodonts that ever lived, at long and high at the shoulder.^[60] The huge Andrewsarchus from the Eocene of Inner Mongolia had skull long^[61] though the taxonomy of this genus is disputed.^{[62] [63]}

• The largest of Bovinae as well as the largest bovid was Bison latifrons. It reached a weight from 1250kg (2,760lb)^{[64] [65]} to 2000kg (4,000lb),^[66] in length, shoulder height of 2.31m (07.58feet),^[67] and had horns that spanned .^[68] The North American Bison antiquus reached up to long, tall, weight of,^[69] and horn span of .^[67] The African Pelorovis reached in weight and had bony cores of the horns about long. Another enormous bovid, the african giant buffalo (Syncerus antiquus) reached in length from muzzle to the end of the tail, in height at the withers, in height at the hindquarters,^{[70] [71]} and the distance between the tips of its horns was as large as .^[70] Aside from local populations and subspecies of extant species, such as the gaur population in Sri Lanka, European bison in British Isles, Caucasian wisent and Carpathian wisent, the largest modern extinct bovid is aurochs (Bos primigenius) with an average height at the shoulders of in bulls and in cows, while aurochs populations in Hungary had bulls reaching .^[72] The kouprey (Bos sauveli), reaching in shoulder height,^{[73] [74]} has existed since the Middle Pleistocene^[75] and is also considered to be possibly extinct.^{[76] [77]}
• The long-legged Megalotragus is possibly the largest known alcelaphine bovid,^[78] bigger than the extant wildebeest.^[79] The tips of horns of M. priscus were located at a distance of about from each other.^[80]

• The extinct cervid Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) reached over in height, in mass and could have antlers spanning up to across, about twice the maximum span for a moose's antlers.^{[81] [82]} The giant moose (Cervalces latifrons) reached high^[83] and was twice as heavy as the Irish elk but its antler span at was smaller than that of Megaloceros.^{[84] [85]} North American stag-moose (Cervalces scotti) reached 2.5m (08.2feet) in length and a weight of 708.5kg (1,562lb).^{[86] [87]}
• The largest known giraffid, aside from the extant giraffe, is Sivatherium, with a body weight of .^[88]
• The largest protoceratid was Synthetoceras, it reached long and in mass.^[89]
• The largest known wild suid to ever exist was Kubanochoerus gigas, having measured up to and stood around tall at the shoulder.^[90] Megalochoerus could be similar in size, possibly weighing or .^[91]
• The largest tayassuid extinct Platygonus species were similar in size to modern peccaries especially giant peccary, at around 1m (03feet) in body length, and had long legs, allowing them to run well. They also had a pig-like snout and long tusks which were probably used to fend off predators.
• The largest camelid was Titanotylopus from the Miocene of North America. It possibly reached and a shoulder height of over .^{[92] [93]} The Syrian camel (Camelus moreli) was twice as big as the modern camels. It was at the shoulder^[94] and tall.^[95] Camelops had legs to be 20% longer than that of Dromedary, and was about 2.3m (07.5feet) tall at the shoulder and weighed about 1000kg (2,000lb).^[96]
• The anoplotheriid Anoplotherium is thought to have been capable of reaching up to in the case of A. commune and in the case of A. latipes.^[97] A. latipes in particular could have measured more than in length and in shoulder height. Because it was probably capable of facultative bipedalism, it could have been capable of standing over tall.^[98]

Cetaceans (Cetacea)

• The heaviest archeocete, and possibly the heaviest known mammal was Perucetus, with weight estimated at NaNt, while length is estimated at NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet),^[99] possibly rivalling the Blue Whale in mass. However, Motani and Pyenson in 2024 argued that it is extremely difficult for Perucetus to rival or exceed the blue whale in weight. They discussed that since Perucetus is much shorter than the blue whale in length, it should be at least 3.375 times denser or 1.83 times fatter to weigh heavier, which is impossible for vertebrates whose whole-body density range from 0.75 to 1.2. Motani and Pyenson tested the hypotheses of Bianucci and colleagues by performing various body mass estimation methods: the regression-based and volumetric mass estimation resulted in for a length range of, though the likely body mass range would fall within . They also claimed that the previous estimation is inflated by assumed isometry, and that the effect from pachyostosis on the estimation of body mass is not negligible as it resulted in underestimation.^[100] The longest of known Eocene archeocete whales was Basilosaurus at 17- in length.^{[101] [102] [103]}
• The largest squalodelphinid was Macrosqualodelphis at in length.^[104]
• Some Neogene rorquals were comparable in size to modern huge relatives. Parabalaenoptera was estimated to be about the size of the modern gray whale,^[105] about long. Some balaenopterids perhaps rivaled the blue whale in terms of size,^[105] though other studies disagree that any baleen whale grew that large in the Miocene.^[106]

Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)

• One of the largest known perissodactyls, and the second largest land mammal (see Palaeoloxodon namadicus) of all time was the hornless rhino Paraceratherium. The largest individual known was estimated at tall at the shoulders, in length from nose to rump, and in weight.^{[107] [108]}
• A large specimen of an unnamed species of the related Dzungariotherium has been estimated to be around 20.6 metric tonnes.^[109]
• Some prehistoric horned rhinos also grew to large sizes. The biggest Elasmotherium reached up to long,^[110] high^[111] and weighed .^{[112] [110] [111]} Such parameters make it the largest rhino of the Quaternary.^[112] Woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) of the same time reached 1100-^[113] or 2000kg (4,000lb),^{[114] [115]} at the shoulder height and in length.^[116]
• Metamynodon, an amynodontid, reached in length, comparable to Hippopotamus in measurement and shape.^[117]
• The giant tapir (Tapirus augustus) was the largest tapir ever, at about ^[118] and tall at the shoulders.^[119] Earlier, this mammal was estimated even bigger, at tall, and assigned to the separate genus Megatapirus.^[119]
• The largest known lophiodont is Lophiodon, with L. lautricense being estimated to reach more than in weight.^[120]
• One of the biggest chalicotheres was Moropus.^[121] It stood about 8feet tall at the shoulder.^[122]
• Late Eocene perissodactyls from the family Brontotheriidae attained huge sizes. The North American Megacerops (also known as Brontotherium) reached tall at the shoulders,^[123] in length,^[124] and in weight. Embolotherium from Asia was equal in size.^[125]
• The largest prehistoric horse was Equus giganteus of North America. It was estimated to grow to more than and at the shoulders.^[126] The largest anchitherine equid was Hypohippus at, comparable to large modern domestic horses.^{[127] [128]} Megahippus is another large anchitheriine. With the body mass of it was much heavier than most of its close relatives.^[127]
• Among the largest-sized genera of palaeotheres, close relatives of horses, is Palaeotherium, with P. giganteum being estimated to reach weights of more than .^[129] Previously until the naming of P. giganteum in 1994, P. magnum was considered the largest species of Palaeotherium,^[130] potentially reaching in shoulder height and in length.^[131] Another palaeothere Cantabrotherium is estimated to have weighed about .^[129]

Phenacodontids (Phenacodontidae)

The largest known phenacodontid is Phenacodus. It was long^[132] and weighed up to .^[133]

Dinoceratans (Dinocerata)

The largest known dinoceratan was Eobasileus with skull length of, tall at the back and tall at the shoulder.^[134] Another huge animal of this group was Uintatherium, with skull length of, tall at the shoulder,^[134] in length and, the size of a rhinoceros. Despite their large size, Eobasileus as well as Uintatherium had a very small brain.^[134]

Carnivores (Carnivora)

Caniformia

• The largest terrestrial mammalian carnivore and the largest known bear, as well as the largest known mammalian land predator of all time, was Arctotherium angustidens, the South American short-faced bear. A humerus of A. angustidens from Buenos Aires indicates that the males of the species could have weighed and stood at least tall on their hind-limbs.^{[135] [136]} Another huge bear was the giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus), with the average weight of and the maximum estimated at .^[137] There is a guess that the largest individuals of this species could reached even larger mass, up to .^[135] The extinct cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) was also heavier than many recent bears. Largest males weighed as much as .^[138] Ailuropoda baconi from the Pleistocene was larger than the modern giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca).^[139]
• The biggest odobenid and one of the biggest pinnipeds to have ever existed is Pontolis magnus, with a skull length of (twice as large as the skulls of modern male walruses) and having a total body length of more than .^[140] Only the modern male elephant seals (Mirounga) reach similar sizes.^[141] The second largest prehistoric pinniped is Gomphotaria pugnax with a skull length of nearly .^[142]
• One of the largest of prehistoric otariids is Thalassoleon, comparable in size to the biggest extant fur seals. An estimated weight of T. mexicanus is no less than .^[143]
• The biggest known mustelid to ever exist was likely the giant otter, Enhydriodon. It exceeded in length, and would have weighed in at around, much larger than any other known mustelid, living or extinct.^{[144] [145] [146]} There were other giant otters, like Siamogale, at around ^[147] and Megalenhydris, which was larger than a modern-day giant river otter.^[148] Megalictis was the largest purely terrestrial mustelid^[149] (although Enhydriodon had recently been mentioned as the largest mustelid that also happens to be a terrestrial predator^[144]). Similar in size to the jaguar, Megalictis ferox had even wider skull, almost as wide as of the black bear.^[149] Megalictis had a powerful bite force, allowing it to eat large prey and crush bones, as modern hyenas and jaguars can.^[149] Another large-bodied mustelid was the superficially cat-like Ekorus from the Miocene of Africa. At almost, the long-legged Ekorus was about the size of a wolf^[150] and filling a similar to leopards ecological niche before big cats came to the continent.^[151] Other huge mustelids include Perunium^[152] and hypercarnivorous Eomellivora, both from the Late Miocene.^[153]
• The heaviest procyonid was possibly South American Chapalmalania. It reached 1.5m (04.9feet) in body length with a short tail and 150kg (330lb), comparable in size to an American black bear (Ursus americanus).^[154] Another huge procyonid was Cyonasua, which weighted about, about the same size as a medium-sized dog.^[155]
• The largest canid of all time was Epicyon haydeni, which stood tall at the shoulder, had a body length of and weighed,^{[156] [157] [158]} with the heaviest known specimen weighing up to 170kg (380lb).^[38] The extinct dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus) reached in length and weighed between .^[159] The largest wolf (Canis lupus) subspecies ever existed in Europe is the Canis lupus maximus from the Late Pleistocene of France. Its long bones are 10% larger than those of extant European wolves and 20% longer than those of C. l. lunellensis.^[160] The Late Pleistocene Italian wolf was morphometrically close to C. l. maximus.^[161]
• The largest bear-dog was a species of Pseudocyon weighing around, representing a very large individual.^[162]

Feliformia

• The largest nimravid was probably Quercylurus major as its fossils suggest it was similar in size to the modern-day brown bear and was scansorial.^[163] In 2021, Eusmilus was declared as the largest of the holplophonine nimravids, reaching the weight of nearly, comparable to a small African lion.^[164] However, the largest Hoplophoneus was estimated at .
• The biggest saber-toothed cats are Amphimachairodus kabir and Smilodon populator, with the males possibly reaching and respectively.^[165] Another contender for the largest felid of all time is Machairodus. M. horribilis from China was estimated at 405kg (893lb) while the North American M. lahayishupup weighed up to 410kg (900lb).^{[166] [167] [168]} Xenosmilus was also a huge cat. It reached around 2m (07feet) long^[169] and weighed around 300-.^[170]
• The heaviest known pantherine felids are the Ngangdong tiger (Panthera tigris soloensis), which are estimated to have weighed up to,^[171] the extinct leonine Panthera fossilis, which has been estimated to have maximum weight of,^[172] the American lion (Panthera atrox), weighing up to,^{[173] [174]} and the Natodomeri lion of eastern Africa, which was comparable in size to large members of P. atrox.^[175]
• Some extinct feline felids also surpassed their modern relatives in size. The Eurasian giant cheetah (Acinonyx pardinensis) reached NaNkg (-2,147,483,648lb), approximately twice as large as the modern cheetah.^[176] The North American Pratifelis was larger than the extant cougar.^[177]
• The largest barbourofelid was Barbourofelis fricki, with the shoulder height of 90cm (40inches).^[178]
• The largest viverrid known to have existed is Viverra leakeyi, which was around the size of a wolf or small leopard at .^[179]
• The largest known fossil hyena is Pachycrocuta, estimated at 90- at the shoulder^[180] and weight.^[38] Another huge hyena with mass over is the cave hyena. It is actually a subspecies of the African spotted hyena, which is at 10% smaller than the extinct cave hyena.^[181]
• The percrocutid feliform, Dinocrocuta, was two or even three times as large as the extant spotted hyena, .^[182]
• The extinct giant fossa (Cryptoprocta spelea) had a body mass in range from ^[183] to,^[184] much larger than the modern fossa weighs (up to for adult males^[185]).

Hyaenodonts (Hyaenodonta)

The largest hyaenodont was Simbakubwa at .^[186] Another giant hyaenodont, Megistotherium reached and had a skull of in length.^[187]

Oxyaenids (Oxyaenidae)

The largest known oxyaenid was Sarkastodon weighing in at .^[38]

Mesonychians (Mesonychia)

Some mesonychians reached a size of a bear. Such large were Mongolonyx from Asia^[188] and Ankalagon from North America.^{[189] [190]} Another large mesonychian is Harpagolestes with a skull length of a half a meter in some species.^[188]

Bats (Chiroptera)

Found in Quaternary deposits of South and Central Americas, Desmodus draculae had a wingspan of 0.5m (01.6feet) and a body mass of up to 60g. Such proportions make it the largest vampire bat that ever evolved.^[191]

Hedgehogs, gymnures, shrews, and moles (Eulipotyphla)

The largest known animal of the group Eulipotyphla was Deinogalerix,^[192] measuring up to in total length, with a skull up to long.^[193]

Rodents (Rodentia)

• Several of the extinct South American dinomyids were much bigger than the modern rodents. Josephoartigasia monesi was the largest-known rodent of all time, approximately weighing an estimated .^[194] Phoberomys pattersoni weighed .^[194] Both Josephoartigasia and Phoberomys reached about tall at the shoulder.^[195] Another huge dinomyid, Telicomys gigantissimus had a minimal weight of .^[195]
• Amblyrhiza inundata from the family Heptaxodontidae was a massive animal, it weighed .^{[196] [195]}
• The largest beaver was the giant beaver (Castoroides) of North America. It grew over 2 m in length and weighed roughly, also making it one of the largest rodents to ever exist.^[197]
• The largest old world porcupine are the Hystrix refossa was larger than living porcupines. It was approximately 20% larger than its closest relative, the living Indian porcupine (H. indica), reaching lengths of over .

Rabbits, hares, and pikas (Lagomorpha)

The biggest known prehistoric lagomorph is Minorcan giant lagomorph Nuralagus rex at .^[198]

Pangolins (Pholidota)

The largest pangolin was the extinct Manis palaeojavanica^[199] Its total length is measured up to 2.5m (08.2feet).^[200]

Primates (Primates)

• The largest known primate as well as the largest hominid of all time was Gigantopithecus blackii, standing tall and weighing .^{[201] [202]} However In 2017, new studies suggested a body mass of for this primate.^[203] Another giant hominid was Meganthropus palaeojavanicus at in body height,^[204] although it is known from very poor remains.^[205]
• During the Pleistocene, some archaic humans were close in sizes or even larger than early modern humans. Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) reached and in average weight for males and females, respectively, larger than the parameters of modern humans (Homo sapiens) (and for males and females, respectively).^[206] A tibia from Kabwe (Zambia) indicates an indeterminate Homo individual of possibly in height. It was one of the tallest humans of the Middle Pleistocene and noticeably large even compared to recent humans.^[207] The tallest Homo sapiens individuals from the Middle Pleistocene of Spain reached and for males and females, respectively.^[207] Some Homo erectus could be as large as tall and in weight.^{[208] [209]}
• The largest known Old World monkey is the prehistoric baboon, with a male specimen of Dinopithecus projected to weigh an average of and up to .^[210] It exceeds the maximum weight record of the chacma baboon, the largest extant baboon. One source projects a specimen of Theropithecus oswaldi to have weighed .^[211]
• The largest known New World monkey was Cartelles, which is studied as specimen of Protopithecus, weighing up to . Caipora bambuiorum is another large species, weighing up to .^[212]
• The largest omomyids were Macrotarsius and Ourayia from the Middle Eocene. Both reached in weight.^[213]
• Some prehistoric lemuriform primates grew to huge sizes as well. Archaeoindris was a 1.5adj=midNaNadj=mid sloth lemur that lived in Madagascar and weighed 150–,^[214] as large as an adult male gorilla.^[215] Palaeopropithecus from the same family was also heavier than most modern lemurs, at .^[216] Megaladapis is another large extinct lemur at in length and an average body mass of around 140kg (310lb).^[217] Other estimates suggest but its still much larger than any extant lemur.^[216]

Elephants, mammoths, and mastodons (Proboscidea)

• The elephant Palaeoloxodon namadicus has been suggested to have been the largest land mammal ever, based on a particularly large partial femur which was estimated to have belonged to an individual in weight and about tall at the shoulder, though the author of the estimate said that this was speculative and should be treated with caution. In 2023, a publication by Gregory S. Paul and Larramendi estimated that another specimen identified as cf. P. namadicus, also only known from a partial femur, would have weighed 18–19 tonnes (40,000–42,000 lb).Other authors have noted that weight estimates for proboscideans based on single bones can lead to estimates that are "highly improbable" compared to accurate estimates from complete skeletons.^[218] In 2024, Biswas, Chang and Tsai estimated a maximum shoulder height of over 4.5 metres (15 ft) and suggested that the body mass for 5 measured specimens ranged from 13.2 to 18.5 tonnes (29,000 to 41,000 lb) from specimens from Taiwan.^[219] The largest individual reported individual of the steppe mammoth of Eurasia (Mammuthus trogontherii) was estimated to reach at the shoulders and in weight.^{[107] [220]} Stegodon zdanskyi, the biggest species of Stegodon, was in body mass. Another enormous proboscidean is Stegotetrabelodon syrticus, over in height and in weight. The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) was about tall at the shoulder but didn't weigh as much as other huge mammoths. Its average mass was with one unusually large specimen about . Columbian mammoths had very long tusks. The largest known mammoth tusk, 4.9m (16.1feet) long, belonged to this species.^[221]
• The mammutid "Mammut" borsoni is one of the largest known proboscideans and land mammals. The average fully-grown male is estimated to have been tall and weighed about, with very large males possibly rivalling the estimated size of the largest Palaeoloxodon namadicus. This species also had the longest tusks of any animals with the largest recorded specimen being long from basis to tip along the curve.^[222]
• Deinotherium was the largest proboscidean in Deinotheriidae family. Bones retrieved in Crete confirm the existence of specimen tall at the shoulders and more than in weight.

Sea cows (Sirenia)

According to reports, Steller's sea cows have grown to 8to long as adults, much larger than any extant sirenians.^[223] The weight of Steller's sea cows is estimated to be 8-.^[224]

With its direct ancestor the Cuesta sea cow being around 9 m (30 ft) long and possibly 10 tonnes (11 short tonnes) in weight.^[225]

Arsinoitheres (Arsinoitheriidae)

The largest known arsinoitheriid was Arsinoitherium. A. zitteli would have been tall at the shoulders, and long.^{[226] [227]} A. giganteum reached even larger size than A. zitteli.^[228]

Hyraxes (Hyracoidea)

Some of the prehistoric hyraxes were extremely large compared to modern small relatives. The largest hyracoid ever evolved is Titanohyrax ultimus. With the mass estimation in rage of to over it was close in size to Sumatran rhinoceros.^[229] Another enormous hyrax is Megalohyrax which had skull of in length^[230] and reached the size of tapir.^[231] More recent Gigantohyrax was three times as large as the extant relative Procavia capensis,^[232] although it is noticeably smaller than earlier Megalohyrax and Titanohyrax.^[233]

Desmostylians (Desmostylia)

The largest known desmostylian was a species of Desmostylus, with skull length of and comparable in size to the Steller's sea cow.^[234]

Paleoparadoxia is also known as one of the largest desmostylians, with body length of .^[235]

Armadillos, glyptodonts and pampatheres (Cingulata)

The largest cingulate known is Doedicurus, at long, high^[236] and reaching a mass of approximately . The largest species of Glyptodon, Glyptodon clavipes, reached in length^{[237] [236]} and in weight.

Anteaters and sloths (Pilosa)

The largest known pilosan is Eremotherium, a ground sloth with an estimated weight of up to and a length of up to,^[238] which is as big as a bull African bush elephant. The closely related ground sloth Megatherium attained similarly large dimensions.^[239]

Astrapotherians (Astrapotheria)

Some of the largest known astrapotherians weighed about, including the genus Granastrapotherium^[240] and some species of Parastrapotherium (P. martiale).^[241] The skeleton remains suggests that the species Hilarcotherium miyou was even larger, with a weight of .^[242]

Litopterns (Litopterna)

The largest known litoptern was Macrauchenia, which had three hoofs per foot. It was a relatively large animal, with a body length of around .^[243]

Notoungulates (Notoungulata)

The largest notoungulate known of complete remains is Toxodon. It was about in body length, and about high at the shoulder and resembled a heavy rhinoceros. Although incomplete, the preserved fossils suggests that Mixotoxodon were the most massive member of the group, with a weight about .^[244]

Pyrotherians (Pyrotheria)

The largest mammal of the South American order Pyrotheria was Pyrotherium at in length and in weight.^[245]

Reptiles (Reptilia)

Lizards and snakes (Squamata)

• Mosasaurs are the largest-known squamates. The largest-known mosasaur is likely Mosasaurus hoffmanni, estimated at more than in length,^{[246] [247]} however these estimations are based on heads and total body length ratio 1:10, which is unlikely for Mosasaurus, and probably that ratio is about 1:7.^[248] Another giant mosasaur is Tylosaurus, estimated at in length.^{[249] [250]} Another mosasaur, Prognathodon reached similar sizes.
• The largest known prehistoric snake is Titanoboa cerrejonensis, estimated at or even ^[251] in length and in weight,^[252] and madtsoiid Vasuki indicus which is estimated to reach between .^[253] A close rival in size to those snakes is palaeophiid marine snake Palaeophis colossaeus, which may have been around in length^{[254] [255]} or even up to .^[256] Another known very large fossil snake is Gigantophis garstini, estimated at in length,^{[257] [258]} although later study shows smaller estimation about .^[259] The largest fossil python is Liasis dubudingala with length roughly .^[260] The largest viper as well as the largest venomous snake ever recorded is Laophis crotaloides from the Early Pliocene of Greece. This snake reached over in length and in weight.^{[261] [262]} Another huge fossil viper is indeterminate species of Vipera. With a length of around it was one of the biggest predators of Mallorca during the Early Pliocene.^[263] The largest known blind snake is Boipeba tayasuensis with estimated total length of .^[264]
• The largest known land lizard is probably megalania (Varanus priscus) at in length.^[265] As extant relatives, megalania could have been venomous and in that case this lizard was also the largest venomous vertebrate ever evolved.^[266] However, maximum size of this animal is subject to debate.^[267] Recent studies have estimated it at long.^[268]

Turtles, tortoises and close relatives (Pantestudines)

Cryptodira

• The largest known turtle ever was Archelon ischyros at long and .^[269] Possible second-largest sea turtle was Protostega at in total body length.^{[270] [271]} There is even a larger specimen of this genus from Texas estimated at in total length.^{[272] [270]} Partially known Cratochelone is estimated to reach in total length.^[273] Another huge prehistoric sea turtle is the Late Cretaceous Gigantatypus, estimated at over in length.^[274] Psephophorus terrypratchetti from the Eocene attained in body length.^[275]
• The largest tortoise was Megalochelys atlas at up to in shell length^[276] and weighing .^[277] M. margae had carapace of long; an unnamed species from Java reached at least in carapace length. The Cenozoic Titanochelon were also larger than extant giant tortoises, with a shell length of up to .^{[278] [279]} Other giant tortoises include Centrochelys marocana at in carapace length and Mesoamerican Hesperotestudo sp. at in carapace length.
• The largest trionychid ever recorded is indeterminate specimen GSP-UM 3019 from the Middle Eocene of Pakistan. Bony carapace of GSP-UM 3019 is long and wide indicates the total carapace diameter (with soft margin) about . Drazinderetes tethyensis from the same formation had a bony carapace long and wide.^[280] Another huge trionychid is North American Axestemys byssinus at over in total length.^[281]

Side-necked turtles (Pleurodira)

The largest freshwater turtle of all time was the Miocene podocnemid Stupendemys, with an estimated parasagittal carapace length of and weight of up to .^[282] Carbonemys cofrinii from the same family had a shell that measured about,^{[283] [284] [285]} complete shell was estimated at .^[286]

Macrobaenids (Macrobaenidae)

The largest macrobaenids were the Early Cretaceous Yakemys, Late Cretaceous Anatolemys, and Paleocene Judithemys. All reached in carapace length.^[287]

Meiolaniformes

The largest meiolaniid was Meiolania. Meiolania platyceps had a carapace long^[288] and probably reached over in total body length.^[289] An unnamed Late Pleistocene species from Queensland was even larger, up to in carapace length.^[288] Ninjemys oweni reached in carapace length^[288] and in weight.^[290]

Sauropterygians (Sauropterygia)

Placodonts and close relatives (Placodontiformes)

Placodus was among the largest placodonts, with a length of up to .^[291]

Nothosaurs and close relatives (Nothosauroidea)

The largest nothosaur as well as the largest Triassic sauropterygian was Nothosaurus giganteus at in length.^[292]

Plesiosaurs (Plesiosauria)

• The largest known plesiosauroid was an indeterminate specimen possibly belonging to Aristonectes (identified as cf. Aristonectes sp.), with a body length of 11m-11.9mm (36feet-39feetm) and body mass of 10.7MT13.5MT.^[293] Another long plesiosauroid was Albertonectes at NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet).^[294] Thalassomedon rivaled it in size, with its length at .^[295] Other large plesiosauroids are Styxosaurus and Elasmosaurus. Both reached some more than in length.^{[296] [297]} Hydralmosaurus (previously synonymized with Elasmosaurus and Styxosaurus) reached in total body length.^[297] In past, Mauisaurus was considered to be more than in length,^{[298] [297]} but later it was determined as nomen dubium.^[299]

• There is much controversy over the largest-known of the Pliosauroidea. Pliosaurus funkei (also known as "Predator X") is a species of large pliosaur, known from remains discovered in Norway in 2008. This pliosaur has been estimated at in length.^[300] However, in 2002, a team of paleontologists in Mexico discovered the remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as "Monster of Aramberri", which is also estimated at in length,^[301] with shorter estimation about .^[302] This species is, however, claimed to be a juvenile and has been attacked by a larger pliosaur.^[303] Some media sources claimed that Monster of Aramberri was a Liopleurodon but its species is unconfirmed thus far. Another very large pliosaur was Pliosaurus macromerus, known from a single 2.8adj=midNaNadj=mid incomplete mandible.^[304] The Early Cretaceous Kronosaurus queenslandicus is estimated at in length and in weight.^{[305] [302]} The Late Jurassic Megalneusaurus rex could reach lengths of 25-.^{[306] [307]} Close contender in size was the Late Cretaceous Megacephalosaurus eulerti with a length in range of .^[308]

Proterosuchids (Proterosuchidae)

Proterosuchus fergusi is the largest known proterosuchid with a skull length of and a possible body length of .

Erythrosuchids (Erythrosuchidae)

The largest erythrosuchid was Erythrosuchus africanus with a maximum length of .

Phytosaurs (Phytosauria)

Some of the largest known phytosaurs include Redondasaurus with a length of ^[309] and Smilosuchus with a length of more than .^[310]

Non-crocodylomorph pseudosuchians (Pseudosuchia)

• The largest shuvosaurid and one of the largest pseudosuchian from the Triassic period was Sillosuchus. Biggest specimens could have reached in length.^[311]
• The largest known carnivorous pseudosuchian of the Triassic is loricatan Fasolasuchus tenax, which measured an estimated of .^{[311] [312]} It is both the largest "rauisuchian" known to science, and the largest non-dinosaurian terrestrial predator ever discovered. Biggest individuals of Postosuchus and Saurosuchus^[313] had a body length of around . A specimen of Prestosuchus discovered in 2010 suggest that this animal also reached lengths of nearly making it one of the largest Triassic pseudosuchians.^[314]
• Desmatosuchus was likely one of the largest known aetosaurs, about in length and in weight.^{[315] [316] [317]}

Crocodiles and close relatives (Crocodylomorpha)

Aegyptosuchids (Aegyptosuchidae)

The Late Cretaceous Aegisuchus was originally estimated to reach in length by the lower estimate and as much as by the upper estimate although a length of over 15 m is likely a significant overestimate.^[318] However, this estimation is likely to be a result of miscalculation, and its length would be only around .^[319]

Crocodylians (Crocodylia)

• The largest caiman and likely one of the largest crocodylians was Purussaurus brasiliensis estimated at .^[320] According to another information, maximum estimate measure and almost in length and in weight respectively.^[321] However, a 2022 study estimated a length of 7.6–9.2 metres (25–30 ft) and a mass of 2–6.2 metric tons (2.2–6.8 short tons) using a phylogenetic approach; and a length of 9.2–10 metres (30–33 ft) and mass of 3.9–4.9 metric tons (4.3–5.4 short tons) using a non-phylogenetic approach.^[322]
• Another giant caiman was Mourasuchus. Various estimates suggest the biggest specimens reached in length and in weight.^[323] but more recent estimates suggest in body length.^[322]
• The largest alligatoroid is likely Deinosuchus riograndensis at long and weighing .^{[324] [325]}
• The largest extinct species of the genus Alligator was the Haile alligator (Alligator hailensis), which had a skull long and was similar in size to the extant American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis).^[326]
• The largest gavialids were Asian Rhamphosuchus at ^{[327] [321]} and South American Gryposuchus at in length.^{[328] [329]}
• The basal crocodyloidean Astorgosuchus bugtiensis from the Oligocene was large. It estimated at in length.^[329]
• The largest known true crocodile was Euthecodon which estimated to have reached or even long.^{[330] [321]} The largest species of the modern Crocodylus were Kenyan Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni at in length,^{[331] [321]} Tanzanian Crocodylus anthropophagus at in length^{[332] [333]} and indeterminate species from Kali Gedeh (Java) at in length.^[334]
• The largest known mekosuchian is Paludirex vincenti, which is estimated to reach up to 5m (16feet).^{[335] [336]} Partial jaw specimen from Pliocene that is attributed to Quinkana suggest an individual about NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet) in length, although other species (known from Oligocene to Pleistocene) are smaller with length around NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet).^{[337] [338] [339]}

Paralligatorids (Paralligatoridae)

The largest paralligatorid was likely Kansajsuchus, estimated at up to long.^[340]

Tethysuchians (Tethysuchia)

• Some extinct pholidosaurids reached giant sizes. In the past, Sarcosuchus imperator was believed to be the largest crocodylomorph, with initial estimates proposing a length of and a weight of .^[341] However, recent estimates have now shrunk to a length of 9to and a weight of 3.5MT4.3MT.^[342] Related to Sarcosuchus, Chalawan thailandicus could have reached more than in length,^[343] although other estimates suggest .^[329]
• The largest dyrosaurid was Phosphatosaurus gavialoides, estimated at in length.^{[344] [329]}

Stomatosuchids (Stomatosuchidae)

Stomatosuchus, a stomatosuchid, was estimated at in length.^[345]

Notosuchians (Notosuchia)

• Some of largest terrestrial notosuchian crocodylomorphs were the Miocene sebecid Barinasuchus, with a skull of long, and Eocene sebecid Dentaneosuchus with estimated mandible length of .^{[346] [347]} Various estimates suggest a possible length of these animals between . Using proportion of Stratiotosuchus which is also large to have long skull,^[348] Barinasuchus is estimated to have length at least .^[346]
• Other huge notosuchian, although only known from fragmentary material, is an early member Razanandrongobe, which skull size may exceeded that of Barinasuchus and overall length may be around .^{[349] [350]}

Thalattosuchians (Thalattosuchia)

• The largest thalattosuchian as well as the largest teleosauroid was unnamed fossil remain from Paja Formation, which may belongs to animal with length of,^[351] which is as large as outdated length estimate of the Early Cretaceous Machimosaurus rex, more recently estimated at in length.^[352] Neosteneosaurus edwardsi (previously known as Steneosaurus edwardsi^[353]) was the biggest Middle Jurassic crocodylomorph, it reached long.^[352]
• Plesiosuchus was very large metriorhynchid. With the length of it exceeded even some pliosaurids of the same time and locality such as Liopleurodon.^[354] Other huge metriorhynchids include Tyrannoneustes at in length^[355] and Torvoneustes at in length.^[356]

Basal crocodylomorphs

Redondavenator was the largest Triassic crocodylomorph ever recorded,^[357] with a skull of at least in length.^{[358] [359]} Another huge basal crocodylomorph was Carnufex^[357] at long even through that is immature.^[360]

Pterosaurs (Pterosauria)

See main article: Pterosaur size.

• The largest known pterosaur was Quetzalcoatlus northropi, at and with a wingspan of .^[361] Another close contender is Hatzegopteryx, also with a wingspan of or more.^[361] This estimate is based on a skull long.^[362] Yet another possible contender for the title is Cryodrakon which had a 10adj=onNaNadj=on wingspan. An unnamed pterodactyloid pterosaur from the Nemegt Formation could reach a wingspan of nearly .^{[363] [364]} According to various assumptions, the wingspan of Arambourgiania philadelphiae reached from to more than .^{[363] [365]} South American Tropeognathus reached the maximum wingspan of .^{[366] [367]}
• The largest of non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs as well as the largest Jurassic pterosaur^[368] was Dearc, with an estimated wingspan between and . Only a fragmentary rhamphorhynchid specimen from Germany could be larger (184% the size of the biggest Rhamphorhynchus).^[369] Other large non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs were Sericipterus, Campylognathoides and Harpactognathus, with the wingspan of,^[370],^[370] and,^[369] respectively.

Choristoderes (Choristodera)

The largest known choristoderan, Kosmodraco dakotensis (previously known as Simoedosaurus dakotensis) is estimated to have had a total length of around .^{[371] [372]}

Tanystropheids (Tanystropheidae)

Tanystropheus, the largest of all tanystropheids, reached up to in length.^[373]

Thalattosaurs (Thalattosauria)

The largest species of thalattosaur, Miodentosaurus brevis grew to more than in length.^[374] The second largest member of this group is Concavispina with a length of .^[375]

Ichthyosaurs (Ichthyosauria)

In April 2018, paleontologists announced the discovery of a previously unknown ichthyosaur that may have reached lengths of making it one of the largest animals known, rivaling some blue whales in size.^{[376] [377]} These remains were later named Ichthyotitan and it has been estimated to reach up to, which makes it the largest ichthyosaur and the largest marine reptile ever.^[378] Another large ichthyosaur was the Late Triassic Shastasaurus sikanniensis at in length^{[379] [380]} and in weight. Another, larger ichthyosaur was found in 1850 in Aust. Its remains seemed to surpass the measurements of the other ichthyosaur, but the researchers commented that the remains were too fragmentary for a size estimate to be made.^[381] Another huge ichthyosaur was Shonisaurus popularis at in length and in weight.^[380] The largest Middle Triassic ichthyosaur as well as the largest animal of that time was Cymbospondylus youngorum at in length and in weight.^[382]

Tangasaurids (Tangasauridae)

The largest tangasaurid was Hovasaurus with an estimated snout-vent length of and a tail of .^[383]

Pareiasaurs (Pareiasauria)

Largest pareiasaurs reached up to in length. Such sizes had Middle Permian Bradysaurus, Embrithosaurus, and Nochelesaurus from South Africa,^[384] and the Late Permian Scutosaurus from Russia.^[384] The most robust Scutosaurus had in body mass.^[384]

Captorhinids (Captorhinidae)

The heavy built Moradisaurus grandis, with a length of,^[385] is the largest known captorhinid.^[386] The second largest captorhinid was Labidosaurikos with the largest adult skull specimen long.^[387]

Non-avian dinosaurs (Dinosauria)

Sauropodomorphs (Sauropodomorpha)

The largest of non-sauropod sauropodomorphs ("prosauropod") was Euskelosaurus. It reached in length and in weight.^[388] Another huge sauropodomorph Yunnanosaurus youngi reached long.^[389]

Sauropods (Sauropoda)

• A mega-sauropod, Maraapunisaurus fragillimus (previously known as Amphicoelias fragillimus), is a contender for the largest-known dinosaur in history. It has been estimated at in maximum length and in weight.^[390] Unfortunately, the fossil remains of this dinosaur have been lost. More recently, it was estimated at in length and in weight.^[391]
• Known from the incomplete and now disintegrated remains, the Late Cretaceous Bruhathkayosaurus matleyi was an anomalously large sauropod.^[392] Informal estimations suggested as huge parameters as in length and in weight. Some estimation however, suggests and but it still much heavier than most other sauropods. More recent estimations by Gregory Paul in 2023 has placed its weight range around to a . If true, it would make Bruhathkayosaurus the single largest terrestrial animal to have walked the earth and would have rivalled the largest blue whale recorded.^[393]
• BYU 9024, a massive cervical vertebra found in Utah,^[394] may belong to a Barosaurus lentus^[395] or Supersaurus vivianae of a huge size, possibly in length and in body mass.^[396] Supersaurus vivianae itself may have been the longest dinosaur yet discovered as a study of 3 specimens suggested length of or over .^[397]

• Mamenchisaurus sinocanadorum was likely the largest mamenchisaurid, reaching nearly in length and in weight.^[391] Xinjiangtitan shanshanesis from the same family had -long neck, about 55% of its total length that could be at least .
• The Middle Jurassic Breviparopus taghbaloutensis was mentioned in The Guinness Book of Records as the longest dinosaur at although this animal is known only from fossil tracks.^{[398] [399]} Originally thought to be a brachiosaurid, it was later identified as a huge diplodocoid, possibly in length and in weight.
• The tallest sauropod was Sauroposeidon proteles with estimated height at .^{[400] [401]} Asiatosaurus could potentially reach in height, but this animal is known only from teeth. Giraffatitan was estimated at in height.^[402]

Other huge sauropods include Argentinosaurus, Alamosaurus, and Puertasaurus with estimated lengths of and weights of .^[403] Patagotitan was estimated at in length^[404] and in average weight,^[405] and was similar in size to Argentinosaurus and Puertasaurus.^[406] Giant sauropods like Supersaurus, Sauroposeidon, and Diplodocus probably rivaled them in length but not in weight. Dreadnoughtus was estimated at in weight^[405] and in length, but the most complete individual was immature when it died.^[407] Turiasaurus is considered the largest dinosaur from Europe,^[408] with an estimated length of and a weight of .^[403] However, lower estimates at and would make it smaller than the Portuguese Lusotitan, which reached in length and in weight.

Many large sauropods are still unnamed and may rival the current record holders:

• The "Archbishop", a large brachiosaur that was discovered in 1930., a scientific paper on the specimen is still in progress.^[409]
• Brachiosaurus nougaredi is yet another large brachiosaur from Early Cretaceous North Africa. The remains have been lost, but the sacrum drawing remains. It suggests a sacrum of almost long,^[410] making it the largest dinosaur sacrum discovered so far, except those of Argentinosaurus and Apatosaurus.^[411]
• In 2010, the femur of a large sauropod was discovered in France. The femur suggests an animal that grew to immense sizes.^[412]

Non-avian theropods (Theropoda)

• The largest theropod as well as the largest terrestrial predator yet known is Tyrannosaurus rex, with the largest specimen known nicknamed Scotty (RSM P2523.8), located at the Royal Saskatchewan Museum, is reported to measure 13 m (43 ft) in length. Using a mass estimation technique that extrapolates from the circumference of the femur, Scotty was estimated as the largest known specimen at 8.87 metric tons (9.78 short tons) in body mass^[413]
• Other large theropods were Giganotosaurus carolinii, and Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, whose largest specimens known estimated at ^[414] and ^[415] in length, and weigh between 4.2to^{[416] [417] [418] [419]} and 14m(46 ft) in length and 7.4 metric tonnes (8.2 short tons) ^[420] respectively (which makes Spinosaurus the longest terrestrial carnivore). Some other notable giant theropods (e.g. Carcharodontosaurus, Acrocanthosaurus, and Mapusaurus) may also have rivaled them in size.
• Macroelongatoolithus, ranging from in length,^[421] is the largest known type of dinosaur egg. It is assigned to oviraptorosaurs like Beibeilong.^[422]

Armoured dinosaurs (Thyreophora)

The largest-known thyreophoran was Ankylosaurus at in length and 6tonne in weight.^{[423] [424]} Stegosaurus was also long^[425] but around 5tonne tonnes in weight.

Marginocephalians (Marginocephalia)

Pachycephalosaurs (Pachycephalosauria)

The largest pachycephalosaur was the eponymous Pachycephalosaurus. Previously claimed to be at in length,^[425] it was later estimated about 4.5m (14.8feet) long and a weight of about .^[426]

Ceratopsians (Ceratopsia)

The largest ceratopsian known is Triceratops horridus, along with the closely related Eotriceratops xerinsularis both with estimated lengths of . Pentaceratops and several other ceratopsians rival them in size.^[427] Titanoceratops had one of the longest skull of any land animal, at 2.65m (08.69feet) long.^[428]

Ornithopods (Ornithopoda)

• The very largest known ornithopods, like Shantungosaurus were as heavy as medium-sized sauropods at up to,^[429] and in length.^[430] Magnapaulia reached in length,^[431] or, according to original description, even .^{[432] [425]} The Mongolian Saurolophus, S. angustirostris, reached long and possibly more.^[433] Such animal could weighed up to .^[433] The largest Edmontosaurus reached in length and around in body mass.^[434] An estimated maximum length of Brachylophosaurus is resulting in weight of .^[435] PASAC-1, informally named "Sabinosaurus", is the largest well-known North American saurolophine,^[436] around long, that is about 20% larger than other known specimens.^[437] Hypsibema missouriensis was up to long.^{[438] [439]} The Late Cretaceous Charonosaurus was estimated around in length and in weight.^{[425] [440]}
• The largest ornithopod outside of Hadrosauroidea was likely the Iguanodon. Biggest specimens reached in length^{[441] [442]} and weighed around .^[443] Another large ornithopod is Iguanacolossus, with in length and in weight.^{[444] [445]}
• The largest rhabdodontid was Matheronodon, estimated at in length.^[446] Rhabdodon reached approximately and according to 2016 estimates.^[447]

Birds (Aves)

The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct elephant bird species Aepyornis maximus of Madagascar, whose closest living relative is the kiwi. Giant elephant birds exceeded 2.3m (07.5feet) in height, and average a mass of 850kg (1,870lb)

The largest fowl was the mihirung Dromornis stirtoniof Australia. It exceeded 2.7m (08.9feet) in height, and average a mass of 500kg (1,100lb)

Another contender is Brontornis burmeisteri, an extinct flightless bird from South America which reached a weight of 319kg (703lb) and a height of approximately 2.8m (09.2feet).^[448]

The tallest recorded bird was Pachystruthio dmanisensis, a relative of the ostrich. This particular species of bird stood at 3.5m (11.5feet) tall and average a mass of 450kg (990lb)

The largest known flightless neoave was the terror bird Paraphysornis brasiliensis of South America, the Brazilian terror bird exceeded 240kg (530lb) in mass,

Table of heaviest extinct bird species

Rank	Common Name	Binomial Name	Average mass kg (lb)
1		Aepyornis maximus	850kg (1,870lb)
2		Dromornis stirtoni	500kg (1,100lb)
3		Pachystruthio dmanisensis	450kg (990lb)[449]
4		Brontornis burmeisteri	319kg (703lb)
5		Dromornis planei	300kg (700lb)[450]
6		Genyornis newtoni	275kg (606lb)
7	East Asian ostrich	Struthio anderssoni	270kg (600lb)[451]
8		Dromornis murrayi	250kg (550lb)[452]
9		Paraphysornis brasilienis	240kg (530lb)
10		Aepyornis hildebrandti	235kg (518lb)[453]
11		Dromornis australis	220kg (490lb)
12		Gastornis gigantea	200kg (400lb)
13		Ilbandornis lawsoni	175kg (386lb)
14		Devincenzia pozzi	161kg (355lb)[454]
15		Ilbandornis woodburnei	150kg (330lb)
16		Titanis walleri	150kg (330lb)[455]
17		Gastornis parisiensis	135kg (298lb)[456]
18	South Island giant moa	Dinornis robustus	125kg (276lb)
19		Gargantuavis philoinos	120kg (270lb)[457]
20		Palaeeudyptes klekowskii	116kg (256lb)[458]
21	North Island giant moa	Dinornis novaezealandiae	100kg (200lb)
22		Phorusrhacos longissmus	94kg (207lb)
23		Mullerornis modestus	80kg (180lb)
24	Heavy-footed moa	Pachyornis elephantopus	80kg (180lb)
25	Giant Teratorn	Argentavis magnificens	71kg (157lb)[459]
26		Barawertornis tedfordi	70kg (150lb)
27		Mesembriornis incertus	70kg (150lb)[460]
28	Crested moa	Pachyornis australis	67kg (148lb)[461]
29	Eastern moa	Emeus crassus	58kg (128lb)
30	Broad-billed moa	Euryapteryx curtus	47.5kg (104.7lb)
31	Upland moa	Megalapteryx didinus	40kg (90lb)
32	Bush moa	Anomalopteryx didiformis	40kg (90lb)
33		Sylviornis neocaledoniae	30.5kg (67.2lb)
34		Eremopezus eocaenus	30kg (70lb)[462]
35	Mantell's moa	Pachyornis geranoides	27kg (60lb)
36		Patagornis marshi	23kg (51lb)
37		Teratornis merriami	22.5kg (49.6lb)[463]
38		Pelagornis sandersi	21.7kg (47.8lb)[464]
39		Llallawavis scagliai	18kg (40lb)[465]
40	Giant darter	Giganhinga kiyuensis	17.7kg (39lb)[466]
41	Giant swan	Cygnus falconeri	16kg (35lb)[467]
42		Leptoptilos robustus	16kg (35lb)[468]
43	Haast's eagle	Hieraaetus moorei	12kg (26lb)
44		Raphus cucullatus	10.2kg (22.5lb)[469]
45		Aptornis defossor	10kg (20lb)
46	South Island goose	Cnemiornis calcitrans	10kg (20lb)
47	North Island adzebill	Aptornis otidiformis	8kg (18lb)
48	North Island goose	Cnemiornis gracilis	8kg (18lb)
49	Hercules parrot	Heracles inexpectatus	7kg (15lb)[470]
50	Spectacled cormorant	Phalacrocorax perspicillatus	6.4kg (14.1lb)[471]

Enantiornitheans (Enantiornithes)

One of the largest enantiornitheans was Enantiornis, with a length in life of around, hip height of, weight of,^[472] and wingspan comparable to some of the modern gulls, around .^[473] Gurilynia was the largest Mesozoic bird from Mongolia, with a length of, hip height of, and weight of .^[472]

Avisauridae

The Late Cretaceous Avisaurus was almost as large as Enantiornis. It had a wingspan around,^[473] a length of, hip height of, and weight of .^[472] Even larger could be the Soroavisaurus. One tibiotarsus (PVL-4033) indicates an animal with a length of, hip height of, and weight of .^[472] However, according to Walker and Dyke (2009) which considered PVL-4033 as Martinavis sp., its tibiotarsus length is,^[474] much shorter than that of Lectavis (tibiotarsus)^[475] which the same book estimated a length of, hip height of, and weight of . Mirarce was comparable in size to a turkey, much larger than most of other enantiornitheans.^[476]

Pengornithidae

One of the biggest Early Cretaceous enantiornithine bird was Pengornis at in length^[425] and skull length of .^[477]

Gargantuaviidae

Gargantuavis is the largest known bird of the Mesozoic, a size ranging between the cassowary and the ostrich, and a mass of 140kg (310lb) like modern ostriches.^[478] In 2019 specimens MDE A-08 and IVPP-V12325 were measured at in length, in hip height, and in weight.^[457]

Dromornithiformes

The largest dromornithid was Dromornis stirtoni over tall^[479] and in mass for males.^[480]

Gastornid (Gastornithiformes)

Large individuals of Gastornis reached up to in height.^[481] Weight of Gastornis ranges from to and sometimes to for European specimens and from to for North American.^{[482] [456] [483]}

Waterfowl (Anseriformes)

Possibly flightless, the Miocene Garganornis ballmanni was larger than any extant members of Anseriformes, with in body mass.^[484] Another huge anseriform was the flightless New Zealand goose (Cnemiornis). It reached, approaching in size to small species of moa.^[485]

Swans (Cygnini)

The largest known swan was the Pleistocene giant swan (Cygnus falconeri), which reached a bill-to-tail length of about,^[486] a weight of around, and a wingspan of .^{[467] [487] [488]} The New Zealand swan (Cygnus sumnerensis) weighed up to, compared to the related extant black swan at only .^[489] The large marine swan Annakacygna yoshiiensis from the Miocene of Japan far exceeded the extant mute swan in both size and weight.^[490]

Anatinae

Finsch's duck (Chenonetta finschi) reached in weight, surpassing related modern Australian wood duck .^[491]

Pelicans, ibises and allies (Pelecaniformes)

• The Early Pliocene Pelecanus schreiberi was larger than most extant pelicans. Pelecanus odessanus from the Late Miocene was probably the same size as P. schreiberi, its tarsometatarsus is long.^[492]
• The largest heron was the Bennu heron (Ardea bennuides). Based on remains discovered, it was approximately tall and had a wingspan up to, thus surpassing the size of the largest living species in the heron family, the goliath heron.^[493]
• The Jamaican ibis (Xenicibis xympithecus) was a large ibis, weighing about 2 kg (70 oz).

Storks and allies (Ciconiiformes)

The largest known of Ciconiiformes was Leptoptilos robustus, standing tall and weighing an estimated .^{[494] [468]} Ciconia maltha is a relatively large species of Ciconia, with a height of over 5abbr=offNaNabbr=off and a wingspan up to 10abbr=offNaNabbr=off across.^[495]

Cranes (Gruiformes)

A large true crane (Gruinae) from the late Miocene (Tortonian) of Germany was equal in size to the biggest extant cranes and resembled the long-beaked Siberian crane (Leucogeranus leucogeranus).^[496]

Shorebirds (Charadriiformes)

Miomancalla howardi was the largest known charadriiform of all time, weighing approximately 0.6 kg (1.3 lb) more than the second-largest member, the great auk (Pinguinus impennis).^[497]

Hesperornithines (Hesperornithes)

The largest known of the hesperornithines was Canadaga arctica at long.^[498]

New World vultures (Cathartiformes)

One of the heaviest flying birds of all time was Argentavis, a Miocene teratornithid. The immense bird had a wingspan estimated up to ^{[459] [499]} and a weight up to .^{[500] [459]} Argentavis humerus was only slightly shorter than an entire human arm.^[501] Another huge teratorn was Aiolornis, with a wingspan of around .^[502] The Pleistocene Teratornis merriami reached and in wingspan, with lower size estimates still exceeding the largest specimens of California condor (Gymnogyps californianus).^[503]

Seriemas and allies (Cariamiformes)

The largest known-ever Cariamiforme and largest phorusrhacid or "terror bird" (highly predatory, flightless birds of America) was Brontornis, which was about tall at the shoulder, could raise its head above the ground and could have weighed as much as .^[504] The immense phorusrhacid Kelenken stood tall^{[505] [506]} with a skull long (of which was beak), had the largest head of any known bird.^[505] South American Phorusrhacos stood 2.4-2.7 m (7.9-8.8 ft) tall, and weighed nearly 130kg (290lb), as much as a male ostrich.^{[507] [508]} The largest North American phorusrhacid was Titanis, which reached a height of approximately 2.5 m (8.2 ft),^[509] slightly taller than an African forest elephant.

Accipitriforms (Accipitriformes)

The largest known bird of prey ever was the enormous Haast's eagle (Hieraaetus moorei), with a wingspan of, relatively short for their size.^{[510] [511]} Total length was probably up to in female^[512] and they weighed about .^[513] Another giant extinct hawk was Titanohierax about that lived in the Antilles and The Bahamas, where it was among the top predators.^[514] An unnamed late Quaternary eagle from Hispaniola could be 15–30% larger than the modern golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos).^[515] Some extinct species of Buteogallus surpassed their extant relatives in size. Buteogallus borrasi was about 33% larger than the modern great black hawk (B. urubitinga).^[516] B. daggetti, also known as "walking eagle", was around 40% larger than the savanna hawk (B. meridionalis).^[517] Eyles's harrier (Circus eylesi) from the Pleistocene-Holocene of New Zealand was more than twice heavier than the extant C. approximans.^[518]

Moa (Dinornithiformes)

The tallest known bird was the South Island giant moa (Dinornis robustus), part of the moa family of New Zealand that went extinct about 500 years ago. It stood up to 3.7m (12.1feet) tall,^[519] and weighed approximately half as much as a large elephant bird due to its comparatively slender frame.

Tinamous (Tinamiformes)

MPLK-03, a tinamou specimen that existed during the Late Pleistocene in Argentina, possibly belongs to the modern genus Eudromia and surpacces extant E. elegans and E. formosa in size by 2.2–8% and 6–14%, respectively.^[520]

Elephant birds (Aepyornithiformes)

The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct elephant birds (Vorombe, Aepyornis) of Madagascar, which were related to the ostrich. They exceeded 3m (10feet) in height and 500kg (1,100lb) in weight.^[521]

Ostriches (Struthioniformes)

With in body mass, Pachystruthio dmanisensis from the lower Pleistocene of Crimea was the largest bird ever recorded in Europe. Despite its giant size, it was a good runner.^[522] A possible specimen of Pachystruthio from the lower Pleistocene of Hebei Province (China) was about in weight, twice heavier than the common ostrich (Struthio camelus).^[523] Remains of the massive Asian ostrich (Struthio asiaticus) from the Pliocene^[524] indicate a size 20% bigger than adult male of the extant Struthio camelus.^[525]

Pigeons and doves (Columbiformes)

The largest pigeon relative known was the dodo (Raphus cucullatus), possibly exceeding 1m (03feet) in height and weighing as much as 28kg (62lb), although recent estimates have indicated that an average wild dodo weighed much less at approximately 10.2kg (22.5lb).^{[526] [527]}

Pheasants, turkeys, gamebirds and allies (Galliformes)

The largest known of the Galliformes was likely the giant malleefowl, which could reach in weight.^[528]

Songbirds (Passeriformes)

The largest known songbird is the extinct giant grosbeak (Chloridops regiskongi) at long.

Cormorants and allies (Suliformes)

• The largest known cormorant was the spectacled cormorant of the North Pacific (Phalacrocorax perspicillatus), which became extinct around 1850 and averaged around and .^[471]
• The largest known darter was Giganhinga with estimated weight about 17.7kg (39lb),^[466] earlier study even claims 25.7kg (56.7lb).^[529]
• The largest known plotopterid, penguin-like flightless bird was Copepteryx titan that is known from long femur, almost twice as long as that of emperor penguin.^[530]

Grebes (Podicipediformes)

The largest known grebe, the Atitlán grebe (Podylimbus gigas), reached a length of about 46cm–50cmcm (18inches–20inchescm).^[531]

Bony-toothed birds (Odontopterygiformes)

The largest known of the Odontopterygiformes— a group which has been variously allied with Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes and Anseriformes and the largest flying birds of all time other than Argentavis were the huge Pelagornis, Cyphornis, Dasornis, Gigantornis and Osteodontornis. They had a wingspan of and stood about tall. Exact size estimates and judging which one was largest are not yet possible for these birds, as their bones were extremely thin-walled, light and fragile, and thus most are only known from very incomplete remains.

Woodpeckers and allies (Piciformes)

The largest known woodpecker is the possibly extinct imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) with a total length of about .^[532]

Parrots (Psittaciformes)

The largest known parrot is the extinct Heracles inexpectatus with a length of about 1 meter (3.3 feet).^[533]

Penguins (Sphenisciformes)

One of the heaviest penguins ever known is Kumimanu fordycei, with a body mass estimate of, derived from humerus measurements.^[534] Another example is Palaeeudyptes klekowskii of Antarctica, with a bill-to-tail length estimated at and an estimated body weight of, slightly smaller than previous estimates.^[535] The Eocene Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi is comparable in size, and was once estimated to reach lengths of and a weight of .^[536] However, recent estimation from humerus measurements put A. nordenskjoeldi more in the range of in weight. Other large penguins include the New Zealand giant penguin (Pachydyptes pondeorsus) weighing around, and Icadyptes salasi at .^[537]

Owls (Strigiformes)

The largest known owl of all time was the Cuban Ornimegalonyx at tall probably exceeding .^[538]

Amphibians (Amphibia)

The largest known amphibian of all time was the long temnospondyl Prionosuchus.^[539]

Lissamphibians (Lissamphibia)

Frogs and toads (Anura)

The largest known frog ever was an as yet unnamed Eocene species that was about 58-.^[540] The Late Cretaceous Beelzebufo grew to at least (snout-vent length), which is around the size of a modern African bullfrog.^[541]

Salamanders, newts and allies (Urodela)

• Andrias matthewi was the largest lissamphibian ever known, with total length up to .^[542]
• Habrosaurus was the largest sirenid. It reached long.^[543]

Diadectomorphs (Diadectomorpha)

The largest known diacectid, herbivorous Diadectes, was a heavily built animal, up to long, with thick vertebrae and ribs.^{[544] [545]}

Anthracosauria

The largest known anthracosaur was Anthracosaurus, with skull about in length.^[546]

Embolomeri

The longest member of this group was Eogyrinus attheyi, species sometimes placed under genus Pholiderpeton.^[547] Its skull had length about .^[548]

Temnospondyls (Temnospondyli)

The largest known temnospondyl amphibian is Prionosuchus, which grew to lengths of . Another huge temnospondyl was Mastodonsaurus giganteus at long.^[549] Unnamed species of temnospondyl from Lesotho is partial, but possible body length estimation is .^[550]

Fishes (Pisces)

Fishes are a paraphyletic group of non-tetrapod vertebrates.

Jawless fish (Agnatha)

Conodonts (Conodonta)

Iowagnathus grandis is estimated to have length over 501NaN1.^[551]

Heterostracans (Heterostraci)

Some members of Psammosteidae such as Obruchevia and Tartuosteus are estimated to reached up to 21NaN1.^[552]

Thelodonts (Thelodonti)

Although known from partial materials, Thelodus parvidens (=T. macintoshi) is estimated to reached up to 11NaN1.^[553]

Cephalaspidomorphs (Cephalaspidomorphi)

A species of Parameteoraspis reached up to 11NaN1.^[554]

Spiny sharks (Acanthodii)

The largest of the now-extinct Acanthodii was Xylacanthus grandis, an ischnacanthiform based on a ~ long jaw bone. Based on the proportions of its relative Ischnacanthus, X. grandis had an estimated total length of .^[555]

Placoderms (Placodermi)

The largest known placoderm was the giant predatory Dunkleosteus. The largest and most well known species was D. terrelli, various estimate put its length around NaN1NaN1 in length and NaNMT in weight.^[556] Another large placoderm, Titanichthys, may have rivaled it in size.^[557] Titanichthys is estimated to have a length around ^{[556] [558] [559] [560]}

Cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes)

Mackerel sharks (Lamniformes)

• Species in the extinct genus Otodus were huge. A giant shark, Otodus megalodon^{[561] [562] [563]} is by far the biggest mackerel shark ever known.^[564] Most estimates of megalodon's size extrapolate from teeth, with maximum length estimates up to 10.6-^{[562] [563] [565]} and average length estimates of 10.5m (34.4feet).^{[566] [567]} Due to fragmentary remains, there have been many contradictory size estimates for megalodon, as they can only be drawn from fossil teeth and vertebrae.^{[568] [569]} Mature male megalodon may have had a body mass of 12.6MT33.9MT, and mature females may have been 27.4MT59.4MT, assuming that males could range in length from 10.5to and females 13.3to.^[570] Related to megalodon, Otodus angustidens and O. chubutensis reached the large sizes too. Each was estimated at ^[571] and,^[572] respectively.
• Other giant mackerel sharks were Pseudoscapanorhynchidae from the Cretaceous period. Cretodus had a size range of (for C. crassidens),^[573] Leptostyrax reached lengths of .^[574]
• The Cenozoic Parotodus reached up to 7.6m (24.9feet) in length.^[575]
• The heaviest thresher shark was likely Alopias grandis. It was similar in size or even larger than the extant great white shark and probably did not have an elongated dorsal tail, characteristic of modern relatives.^[576]

Ground sharks (Carcharhiniformes)

The Cenozoic Hemipristis serra was considerably larger than its modern-day relatives and had much larger teeth. Its total length is estimated to be at 6m (20feet) long.^[577]

Hybodonts (Hybodontiformes)

One of the largest hybodontiforms was the Jurassic Asteracanthus with body length of up to .^[578] Crassodus reifi is known from less materials, however it is estimated that reached over .^[579]

Ctenacanthiformes

The largest member of ctenacanthiformes is Saivodus striatus with estimated length around .^[580]

Skates and allies (Rajiformes)

The giant sclerorhynchid Onchopristis reached about in length.^[581]

Eugeneodont (Eugeneodontida)

The largest known eugeneodont is an as-yet unnamed species of Helicoprion discovered in Idaho. The specimens suggest an animal that possibly exceeded in length.^[582] Another fairly large eugeneodont is Parahelicoprion. Being more slimmer than Helicoprion, it reached nearly the same size,^[582] possibly up to in length.^[583] Both had the largest sizes among the animals of Paleozoic era.^{[584] [583]}

Lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii)

Coelacanths (Actinistia)

The largest coelacanth is Cretaceous Mawsonia gigas with estimated total length up to . Jurassic Trachymetopon may have reached size close to that, about .^[585] An undetermined mawsoniid from the Maastrichtian deposits of Morocco probably reached in length.^{[586] [585]}

Lungfish (Dipnoi)

Cretaceous Ceratodus sp. from Western Interior is estimated to had a length around .^[587]

Stem-tetrapods (Tetrapodomorpha)

• Not only the largest known rhizodont, but also the largest lobe-finned fish was the long Rhizodus.^[588] Another large rhizodonts were Strepsodus with estimated length around and Barameda estimated at in length.^{[589] [590]}
• Tristichopterid Hyneria reached length up to .

Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii)

Acipenseriformes

• Gyrosteus, which belongs to extinct acipenseriform family Chondrosteidae, is estimated to have standard length about .^[591]
• The largest known fossil sturgeon is "Acipenser" gigantissimus known from fragmentary remains, which is estimated to reach up to .^[592]
• The largest known fossil paddlefish is unnamed remain from Judith River Formation, it may exceeded, known remains exceeded size of recently extinct Chinese paddlefish, which scientifically reported to exceed .^[593]

Pachycormiformes

The largest known ray-finned fish and largest bony fish of all time was the pachycormid, Leedsichthys problematicus, at around long.^[594] Earlier estimates have had claims of larger individuals with lengths over .^{[595] [596]}

Ichthyodectiformes

The largest known of ichthyodectiform fish was Xiphactinus, which measured up to long.^[597] Ichthyodectes reached long, twice lesser than Xiphactinus.^[598]

Pycnodontiformes

The largest known pycnodontiform was Gyrodus circularis, with length up to .^[599]

Bichirs (Polypteriformes)

The Late Cretaceous Bawitius was likely the largest bichir of all time. It reached up to in length.^[600]

Opahes, ribbonfishes, oarfishes and allies (Lampriformes)

Megalampris was likely the largest fossil opah. This fish was around in length when alive, which is twice the length of the largest living opah species, Lampris guttatus.^[601]

Salmon and trout (Salmoniformes)

The largest salmon was Oncorhynchus rastrosus, varying in size from and ^[602] to and .^{[603] [602]}

Pufferfishes, boxfishes, triggerfishes, ocean sunfishes and allies (Tetraodontiformes)

• Austromola angerhoferi had total body length about, and total height, comparable with largest ocean sunfish.^{[604] [605]}
• Some extinct species of Balistes like B. vegai and B. crassidens are estimated to have total length up to .^[606]

Lizardfishes (Aulopiformes)

The largest lizardfish was Stratodus which could reach length of .^[607]

Echinoderms (Echinodermata)

Crinozoa

Sea lilies (Crinoidea)

The longest stem of Seirocrinus subangularis reached over .^[608]

Asterozoa

Starfish (Asteroidea)

Helianthaster from Hunsrück Slate had a radius of about .^[609]

Graptolites (Graptolithina)

The longest known graptoloid graptolite is Stimulograptus halli at . It was found in Silurian deposits of the United Kingdom.^[610]

Kinorhynchs (Kinorhyncha)

Cambrian kinorhynchs from Qingjiang biota, also known as "mud dragons", reached in length, much larger than extant relatives that grow only a few millimeters in length.^{[611] [612]}

Arthropods (Arthropoda)

Dinocaridida

Gilled lobopodians

Based on the findings of mouthparts, the Cambrian gilled lobopodian Omnidens amplus is estimated to have been 1.5m (04.9feet). It is also known as the largest Cambrian animal known to exist.^[613]

Radiodont (Radiodonta)

The largest known radiodont is Aegirocassis benmoulai, estimated to have been at least long.^{[614] [615]}

Chelicerata

Sea spiders (Pycnogonida)

The largest fossil sea spider is Palaeoisopus problematicus with legspan about .^[616]

Horseshoe crabs and allies (Xiphosura)

• Willwerathia reached in carapace width and was the largest species of basal ("synziphosurine") xiphosurans.^{[617] [618]} However, the Devonian Maldybulakia reached nearly ^[619] and was assigned to xiphosurans in 2013.
• Horseshoe crab trackway icnofossil Kouphichnium lithographicum from Cerin in Ain indicates length of animal .^[620]

Chasmataspidids (Chasmataspidida)

The largest chasmataspidids were the Ordovician Hoplitaspis at in length and similar in size range Chasmataspis.^[621]

Eurypterids (Eurypterida)

• The largest known eurypterid was Jaekelopterus rhenaniae at in length, which is also the largest arthropod known to exist.^[622] Erettopterus grandis possibly reached this same length but this is based on an incomplete telson only. A close contender was Acutiramus bohemicus at in length.^[623] The largest megalograptid as well as the largest Ordovician eurypterid was Pentecopterus. It reached up to in length.^[624] All these were eurypterine eurypterids.^{[623] [624]}
• The largest stylonurine eurypterid was Hibbertopterus, with in length.^[623]

Arachnids (Arachnida)

• There are three contenders for largest-known arachnid as well as the largest scorpions of all time: Pulmonoscorpius kirktonensis, Brontoscorpio anglicus and Praearcturus gigas. Each was estimated to have been,^{[625] [626]} and up to,^[627] respectively.
• Mongolarachne jurassica is the largest described fossil spider, with the total body length of female is approximately while the front legs reach about in length.^[628] Dinodiplura ambulacra had larger body length, combined length of carapace and opisthosoma reaches .^[629]
• The largest of prehistoric whipscorpions and possibly the largest-known whipscorpion ever discovered^[630] was Mesoproctus rayoli. The type specimen has body length reaching with a carapace of in length, while another specimen has a carapace of in length and in width, comparable or even larger than the extant Mastigoproctus.^{[631] [632]}
• The largest Ricinulei to ever exist was Curculioides bohemondi with a body length of .^[633]
• The largest fossil acariform mite and also the largest erythraeoid mite ever recorded was Immensmaris chewbaccei with idiosoma of more than in length.^[634]
• The largest known trigonotarbid was Kreischeria with a minimal length of .^[635] The second largest was Pleophrynus at in length.^[635]

Artiopods (Artiopoda)

Retifacies probably reached up to .^[636] Tegopelte is another one example of large non-trilobite artiopod, reached long and was the largest of the Burgess Shale bilaterians, surpassing all other benthic organisms by at least twice.^[637]

Trilobites (Trilobita)

Some of trilobites exceeded in length. A nearly complete specimen of Isotelus rex from Manitoba attained a length over, and an Ogyginus forteyi from Portugal was almost as long. Fragments of trilobites suggest even larger record sizes. An isolated pygidium of Hungioides bohemicus implies that the full animal was long.^[638]

Myriapods (Myriapoda)

The largest known myriapod by far was Arthropleura. Measuring long^[639] and wide.^[640] Some specimens could have been even larger, up to in length and 50kg (110lb) in weight.^{[641] [642]}

Non-hexapod crustaceans (Crustacea)

Cycloids (Cyclida)

The largest cyclid was Opolanka decorosa, the Late Triassic Halicyne-like cycloid which reached over across the carapace.^[643]

Remipedes (Remipedia)

Tesnusocaris had body length at least,^[644] larger than every living remipedes which could reach up to .^[645]

Insects (Insecta)

Sawflies, wasps, bees, ants and allies (Hymenoptera)

• The largest known of this group was the giant ant Titanomyrma giganteum with queens growing to . It had a wingspan of .^[646]
• Apis lithohermaea is one of the largest honey bees ever found, comparable in size to the modern Apis dorsata.^[647]
• The giant horntail Ypresiosirex orthosemos reached 67.9mm in length including the incomplete ovipositor.^[648] Another example of a giant sawfly is Hoplitolyda duolunica, with wingspan over 92mm.^[649]

Fleas (Siphonaptera)

The largest known in Siphonaptera was probably Pseudopulex magnus, growing to in length.^[650]

Earwigs (Dermaptera)

Extinct as recently as after 1967^{[651] [652]} and also submitted as the Holocene subfossils,^[653] the Saint Helena giant earwig (Labidura herculeana, with synonym Labidura loveridgei) reached in length including forceps long.^[651]

Chresmodidae

Chresmodidae had long specialized legs like of the modern Gerridae family. One of the Chresmodidae, Chresmoda obscura, could have reached a size of about .^[654]

Beetles (Coleoptera)

One of the largest known fossil beetles in the superfamily Scarabaeoidea is Protognathinus spielbergi. It had total length including mandibles about .^[655] The largest fossil scarabaeid was Oryctoantiquus borealis with an estimated body length of .^[656]

Titanopterans (Titanoptera)

Related to modern orthopterans, titanopterans from the Triassic period were much larger. The wingspan of Gigatitan vulgaris was up to .^[657] Clatrotitan andersoni also reached a huge size, having a forewing long.^[658]

Antlions and related net-winged insects (Neuroptera)

Makarkinia adamsi from the Crato Formation is estimated to have the longest forewings of any neuropteran species, estimated at 160mm.^[659]

Cockroaches, termites, mantises and allies (Dictyoptera)

• Some Carboniferous cockroach-like insects grouping in Blattoptera like Archoblattina beecheri^[660] and Necymylacris (Xenoblatta) scudderi^{[661] [662]} could reach around 9 centimetres in total length, which is comparable to a modern Megaloblatta longipennis.
• Cretaceous cockroach Ptiloteuthis foliatus had a long wing.^[663]
• Found in the Miocene of Austria, the giant termite Gyatermes styriensis reached in body length and had a wingspan of .^[664]

Dragonflies, damselflies and griffinflies (Odonatoptera)

• The largest known odonatopteran insect was Meganeuropsis permiana with single wing of . Meganeura had a long wing.^[665]
• Triadotypid odonatan Reisia gelasii (=Triadotypus guillaumei) from Triassic had 136mm long wing, and wingspan can be 280mm.^{[666] [667]}

Mayflies (Ephemeroptera)

• The largest known mayfly is Permian Ponalex maximus, with 55mm long hindwing.^[668] Cretaceous Epicharmeropsis quadrivenulosus had 37mm long forewing.^[669]
• Although Bojophlebia prokopi from the Upper Carboniferous of Moravia (Czech Republic) with a wingspan of 45cm (18inches) is described as the largest mayfly,^[670] later study shows that this insect is not related to mayflies.^[671]

Palaeodictyoptera

The largest known palaeodictyopteran was Mazothairos, with an estimated wingspan of up to .^[672] If a subcircular wing known from Piesberg Quarry belongs to a palaeodictyopteran, it possibly had single wing length at least .^[673]

Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails) and other wingless primitive insects

• The largest known machilid is Triassic Gigamachilis, with 40mm body length not counting the length of the filament, and estimated total length about 80mm.^[674]
• The largest specimens of the extinct suborder Monura reached 30mm or more, not counting the length of the filament.^[675]
• Although Ramsdelepidion was once considered as a 60mm-long silverfish,^[676] it was later considered that classification is uncertain and just treated as stem group insect.^[677]
• The wingless early insect Carbotriplura had body length about 103mm without tail filaments.^[678]

Arrow worms (Chaetognatha)

The Cambrian stem-chaetognathan Timorebestia koprii had reached up to in body length and including the antennae.^[679] Capinatator had a third of length, about, but it is not considered as stem member and still had length similar to the largest modern arrow worms.^[680]

Ringed worms (Annelida)

Websteroprion is the largest known fossil eunicidan annelid, with estimated length ranges, however comparison with closely related extant taxa indicates length around .^[681] It also had the biggest scolecodonts of any prehistoric polychaete, up to in length and possibly larger.^[681]

Molluscs (Mollusca)

Snails and slugs (Gastropoda)

• The largest known gastropods were in the genus Campanile, with the extinct Campanile giganteum having shell lengths up to ^[682] or even more than .^[683]
• The largest known cowrie is Vicetia bizzottoi, with shell length of .^[684]
• Pebasiconcha immanis is the largest land snail ever known, shell height is with a partial specimen that may exceed in height.^[685]

Bivalves (Bivalvia)

• The largest known bivalve ever as well as the largest inoceramid was Platyceramus platinus, a giant that usually had an axial length of, but some individuals could reach an axial length of up to .^[686] Another large prehistoric bivalve was Inoceramus. In 1952, -long specimen of Inoceramus steenstrupi was found in the Late Cretaceous deposits of Greenland.^[687]
• Some Permian alatoconchid genus like Shikamaia had shell length about .^[688] Previous estimation reconstructed length of Shikamaia around .^[689]
• The longest ostreid is Konbostrea, with shell height reaching up to .^[690]
• Rudist Titanosarcolites had overall size around .

Tusk shells (Scaphopoda)

• Complete shell length of tusk shell Prodentalium onoi is estimated to be over .^[691]

Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)

Nautiloids (Nautiloidea)

The largest and longest known of nautiloids was Endoceras giganteum with a shell length of . There is a record of individual whose shell length had reached, but it is doubtful.^[692]

Ammonites (Ammonoidea)

The largest known ammonite was Parapuzosia seppenradensis.^[693] A partial fossil specimen found in Germany had a shell diameter of, but the living chamber was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about and weighed about when it was alive.^[694] However, a later study estimates shell diameter up to around .^[695]

Belemnites (Belemnoidea)

The largest known belemnite was Megateuthis gigantea, reaching about in maximum diameter and length of rostrum, respectively.^[696]

Squids, octopuses, cuttlefishes and allies (Neocoleoidea)

• Octopod Enchoteuthis melanae (considered as specimen of Tusoteuthis longa) had mantle length up to, comparable to the modern-day giant squid. Previously, this taxon was considered similar to the giant squid, with total length including arms over . However, considering other fossil relatives, total length including arms is estimated to be around .^[697]
• Both non-octopod Yezoteuthis and teuthid Haboroteuthis are estimated to be similar in size to the modern-day giant squid.^{[698] [699]}

Brachiopods (Brachiopoda)

The largest brachiopod ever evolved was Striatifera striata from Akkermanovka Quarry, Russia, with height up to .^[700] Another huge brachiopod was the Carboniferous Gigantoproductus giganteus, with shell width from ^[701] to over .^{[702] [703]} Titanaria costellata had large and long shell in width, nearly as large as Gigantoproductus.^[704]

Hyoliths (Hyolitha)

The largest hyolith is Macrotheca almgreeni, with length about .^[705]

Cnidarians (Cnidaria)

Jellyfishes and allies (Medusozoa)

The largest fossil jellyfish is Cambrian Cordubia gigantea, with diameter of .^[706] Specimens from the Cambrian of Wisconsin reached in length.^[707]

Vendobionts (Vendobionta)

Petalonamids (Petalonamae)

Longest specimens of Trepassia wardae (also known as Charnia wardi) reached in length.^[708] Charnia masoni is known from specimens as small as only, up to the largest specimens of in length.^[709]

Proarticulata

Dickinsonia tenuis reached in length, that makes it one of the largest precambrian organisms.^{[710] [711]}

Sponges (Porifera)

The largest known Permian sponge Gigantospongia had diameter up to .^[712]

See also

• Dinosaur size
• Largest organisms
• Megafauna

Sources

• Book: Molina-Pérez . Rubén . Larramendi . Asier . 2019 . Dinosaurs Facts and Figures: The Theropods . Princeton University Press . 978-0-691-18031-1.
• Book: Molina-Pérez . Rubén . Larramendi . Asier . 29 September 2020 . Dinosaur Facts and Figures: The Sauropods and Other Sauropodomorphs . Princeton University Press . 978-0-691-19069-3 .
• Book: Rose, Kenneth David . The beginning of the age of mammals . 2006 . JHU Press . Baltimore . 978-0-8018-8472-6 .
• Book: Desojo, Julia Brenda . Anatomy, Phylogeny and Palaeobiology of Early Archosaurs and Their Kin . 2013 . Geological Society . London . 978-1-86239-361-5 .
• Book: Palmer. Douglas. 1999 . The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals . Marshall Editions. London . 978-1-84028-152-1.

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