Iraq Explained

Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia and a core country in the geopolitical region known as the Middle East. With a population exceeding 46 million, it is the 35th-most populous country. It consists of 18 governorates. The country is bordered by Turkey to the north, Saudi Arabia to the south, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. The capital and largest city is Baghdad. Iraqi people are diverse; mostly Arabs, as well as Kurds, Turkmen, Yazidis, Assyrians, Armenians, Mandaeans, Persians and Shabakis with similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Most Iraqis are Muslims – minority faiths include Christianity, Yazidism, Zoroastrianism, Mandaeism, Yarsanism and Judaism.^{[9] [10]} The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish; others also recognized in specific regions are Assyrian, Turkish, and Armenian.^[11]

Starting as early as the 6th millennium BC, the fertile alluvial plains between Iraq's Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, referred to as the region of Mesopotamia, gave rise to some of the world's earliest cities, civilizations, and empires. It was known as a "Cradle of Civilisation" that saw the inventions of a writing system, mathematics, timekeeping, a calendar, astrology, and a law code. Following the Muslim conquest, Baghdad became the capital and the largest city of the Abbasid Caliphate. During the time of the Islamic Golden Age, the city evolved into a significant cultural and intellectual center, and garnered a worldwide reputation for its academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom.^[12] It was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258 during the siege of Baghdad, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires.^{[13] [14] [15] [16]}

Since its independence, Iraq has experienced spells of significant economic and military growth alongside periods instability and conflict. The region remained a part of the Ottoman Empire until the end of World War I, after which Mandatory Iraq was established by the British Empire in 1921. It gained indepdence as the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932. Following a coup d'état in 1958, Iraq became a republic, led by Abdul Karim Qasim followed by Abdul Salam Arif and then Abdul Rahman Arif. The Ba'ath Party came to power in the 1968 and ruled as one-party state, under the leadership of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, followed by Saddam Hussein, who started major wars against Iran and Kuwait. In 2003, the Iraq War started after the United States-led coalition forces invaded Iraq and overthrew Saddam. The war subsequently turned into an insurgency and sectarian civil war, with American troops withdrawing in 2011. Between 2013 and 2017, Iraq was once more in a state of war, with the rise and subsequent fall of Islamic State. Today post-war conflict in Iraq continues at a lower scale, which has been an obstacle to the country's stability.^{[17] [18]}

A federal parliamentary republic country, Iraq is considered an emerging middle power. It is a founding member of the United Nations, the OPEC as well as of the Arab League, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, Non-Aligned Movement, and the International Monetary Fund. With a strategic location, the country has one of the largest oil reserves in the world and is among global centers for oil and gas industry. In addition, the country has been popular for its agriculture and tourism. Since its independence, it has experienced spells of significant economic and military growth alongside periods instability and conflict. The country is putting efforts to rebuild after the war with foreign support.^{[19] [20] [21] [22] [23]}

Name

There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin.^{[24] [25]} Another possible etymology for the name is from the Middle Persian word erāq, meaning "lowlands."^[26] An Arabic folk etymology for the name is "deeply rooted, well-watered; fertile".^[27]

During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī ("Arabian Iraq") for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿAjamī ("Persian Iraq"), for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the plain south of the Hamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost and westernmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq.^[28] Prior to the middle of the 19th century, the term Eyraca Arabica was commonly used to describe Iraq.^{[29] [30]}

The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

As an Arabic word, Arabic: عراق ʿirāq means "hem", "shore", "bank", or "edge", so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as "the escarpment", such as at the south and east of the Jazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the "al-Iraq arabi" area.^[31]

The Arabic pronunciation is pronounced as /ar/. In English, it is either (the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary and the first one in Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary^[32]) or (listed first by MQD), the American Heritage Dictionary,^[33] and the Random House Dictionary.^[34]

When the British established the Hashemite king on 23 August 1921, Faisal I of Iraq, the official English name of the country changed from Mesopotamia to the endonymic Iraq.^[35] Since January 1992, the official name of the state is "Republic of Iraq" (Jumhūriyyat al-ʿIrāq), reaffirmed in the 2005 Constitution.^{[36] [37] [38]}

History

See main article: Mesopotamia, History of Mesopotamia and History of Iraq. Iraq largely coincides with the ancient region of Mesopotamia, often referred to as the cradle of civilization.^[39] The history of Mesopotamia extends back to the Lower Paleolithic period, with significant developments continuing through the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, after which the region became known as Iraq.

Bronze and Iron Age

Within its borders lies the ancient land of Sumer, which emerged between 6000 and 5000 BC during the Neolithic Ubaid period. Sumer is recognized as the world's earliest civilization, marking the beginning of urban development, written language, and monumental architecture. Iraq's territory also includes the heartlands of the Akkadian, Neo-Sumerian, Babylonian, Neo-Assyrian, and Neo-Babylonian empires, which dominated Mesopotamia and much of the Ancient Near East during the Bronze and Iron Ages.

Iraq was a center of innovation in antiquity, producing early written languages, literary works, and significant advancements in astronomy, mathematics, law, and philosophy. This era of indigenous rule ended in 539 BC when the Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great, who declared himself the "King of Babylon." The city of Babylon, the ancient seat of Babylonian power, became one of the key capitals of the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient Iraq, known as the Mesopotamia, is home to world's first Jewish diaspora community, which emerged during the Babylonian exile.

The Babylonians were defeated by the Persian Empire, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great. Following the fall of Babylon, the Achaemenid Empire took control of the Mesopotamian region. Enslaved Jews were freed from the Babylonian captivity, though many remained in the land and thus the Jewish community grew in the region. Iraq is the location of numerous Jewish sites, which are also revered by the Muslims and Christians.

In the following centuries, the regions constituting modern Iraq came under the control of several empires, including the Greeks, Parthians, and Romans, establishing new centers like Seleucia and Ctesiphon. By the 3rd century AD, the region fell under Persian control through the Sasanian Empire, during which time Arab tribes from South Arabia migrated into Lower Mesopotamia, leading to the formation of the Sassanid-aligned Lakhmid kingdom.

Middle Ages

The Arabic name al-ʿIrāq likely originated during this period. The Sasanian Empire was eventually conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, bringing Iraq under Islamic rule after the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636. The city of Kufa, founded shortly thereafter, became a central hub for the Rashidun dynasty until their overthrow by the Umayyads in 661. Karbala is considered as one of the holiest cities in Shia Islam, following the Battle of Karbala, which took place in 680.

With the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate in the mid-8th century, Iraq became the center of Islamic rule, with Baghdad, founded in 762, serving as the capital. Baghdad flourished during the Islamic Golden Age, becoming a global center for culture, science, and intellectualism. However, the city's prosperity declined following the Buwayhid and Seljuq invasions in the 10th century and suffered further with the Mongol invasion of 1258.

Iraq later came under the control of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. During the years 1747–1831, Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin, who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and reimposed their direct control over Iraq.

Modern Iraq

See main article: Mandatory Iraq, Kingdom of Iraq, Iraqi Republic (1958–1968) and Ba'athist Iraq. Iraq's modern history began in the wake of World War I, as the region emerged from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.^[40] Arab forces, inspired by the promise of independence, had helped dismantle the Ottoman hold on the Middle East, but the dream of a united, sovereign Arab state was soon dashed. Despite agreements made with Hussein ibn Ali, the Sharif of Makkah, the European powers had different plans for the region. Following the British withdrawal of support for a unified Arab state, Hussein's son, Faisal, briefly declared the Kingdom of Syria in 1920, encompassing parts of what are now Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, and Syria. However, the kingdom was short-lived, crushed by local opposition and the military might of France, which had been granted a mandate over Syria.

In Iraq, under British mandate, tensions were rising as local forces increasingly resisted foreign control. A rebellion erupted, challenging British authority, and the need for a new strategy became clear. In 1921, the Cairo Conference, led by British officials including Winston Churchill and T.E. Lawrence, decided that Faisal, now exiled in London, would become the king of Iraq. This decision was seen as a way to maintain British influence in the region while placating local demands for leadership. Upon his coronation, he focused on unifying a land formerly divided into three Ottoman provinces—Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra. He worked hard to gain the support of Iraq's diverse population, including both Sunnis and Shiites, and paid special attention to the country's Shiite communities, symbolically choosing the date of his coronation to coincide with Eid al-Ghadeer, a key day for Shiite Muslims.

His reign laid the foundations of modern Iraq. Faisal worked to establish key state institutions and fostered a sense of national identity. His education reforms included the founding of Ahl al-Bayt University in Baghdad, and he encouraged the migration of Syrian exiles to Iraq to serve as doctors and educators. Faisal also envisioned infrastructural links between Iraq, Syria, and Jordan, including plans for a railway and an oil pipeline to the Mediterranean. Although Faisal succeeded in securing greater autonomy for Iraq, British influence remained strong, particularly in the country’s oil industry. In 1930, Iraq signed a treaty with Britain that gave the country a measure of political independence while maintaining British control over key aspects, including military presence and oil rights. By 1932, Iraq gained formal independence, becoming a member of the League of Nations. Faisal's reign was marked by his efforts to balance the pressures of external influence and internal demands for sovereignty. He was admired for his diplomatic skill and his commitment to steering Iraq toward self-determination. Untimely, he died from a heart attack on 8 September 1933, leaving his son Ghazi to inherit the throne. King Ghazi’s reign was brief and turbulent, as Iraq was impacted by numerous coup attempts. He died in a motor accident in 1939, passing the throne to his young son, Faisal II, who ascended to the throne at just 3 years old. Faisal II’s uncle, Crown Prince Abdullah, assumed regency until the young king came of age.

On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government. During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that the government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of its links to the Axis powers. The war started on 2 May, and the British, together with loyal Assyrian Levies, defeated the forces of Al-Gaylani, forcing an armistice on 31 May. Regency of King Faisal II began in 1953. The hopes for Iraq’s future under Faisal II were high, but the nation remained divided. Iraq's Sunni-dominated monarchy struggled to reconcile the diverse ethnic and religious groups, particularly the Shiite, Assyrian, Jewish and Kurdish populations, who felt marginalized. In 1958, these tensions culminated in a military coup, inspired by the revolutionary wave sweeping across the Arab world, particularly the 1952 Egyptian Revolution.^[41]

Republic and Ba'athist Iraq

See main article: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968) and Ba'athist Iraq. A coup d'état known as the 14 July Revolution in 1958 was led by the Brigadier General and nationalist Abd al-Karim Qasim. This revolt was strongly anti-imperial and anti-monarchical in nature and had strong socialist elements. King Faysal II, Prince Abd al-Ilah, and Nuri al-Sa'id, along with the royal family were killed brutally. Qasim controlled Iraq through military rule and in 1958 he began a process of forcibly reducing surplus land owned by a few citizens and having the state redistribute the land. In 1959, Abd al-Wahab al-Shawaf led an uprising in Mosul against Qasim. The uprising was crushed by the government forces. He claimed Kuwait as part of Iraq, when it the former was granted independence in 1961. The United Kingdom deployed its army on Iraq–Kuwait border, which forced Qasim to back down. He was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party in February 1963 coup.^[42] However internal division with Ba'athist factions caused another coup in November, which brought Colonel Abdul Salam Arif to power. The new regime recognized Kuwait's independence. After the latter's death in 1966, he was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif. Under his rule, Iraq participated in the Six Day War in 1967.Arif was overthrown in the 17 July Revolution in 1968.^[43] The Ba'ath Party came to power, with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr as the president of Iraq. However, the government gradually came under the control of Saddam Hussein, Iraq's then vice-president. Saddam sought to achieve stability between Iraq's ethnic and religious groups. The first Iraqi–Kurdish war ended in 1970, after which a peace treaty was signed between Saddam and Barzani, granting autonomy to Kurds. He introduced free healthcare and education, nationalized oil, promoted women's rights and developed infrastructure. Within few years, Iraq became one of the most developed countries in the world.

In 1974, the second Iraqi–Kurdish war began and border clashes with Iran took place on Shatt al-Arab. Iran supported Kurdish militants. The Algiers Agreement signed in 1975, by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Saddam solved the dispute and Iran withdrew support for the Kurds, resulting their defeat in the war. In 1973, Iraq participated in the Yom Kippur War against Israel, alongside Syria and Egypt. An attempt to ban an annual pilgrimage Karbala caused an uprising by Shia Muslims across Iraq. Another Shia uprising took place from 1979 to 1980, as a followup to the Islamic Revolution in Iran. On 16 July 1979, Saddam was acceded to the presidency and chairmanship of the supreme executive body in July 1979.

Following months of cross-border raids with Iran, Saddam declared war on Iran in September 1980, initiating the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). Taking advantage of the post-Iranian Revolution chaos in Iran, Iraq captured some territories in southwest Iran, but Iran recaptured all of the lost territories within two years, and for the next six years Iran was on the offensive.^{[''[[Wikipedia:Citing sources|page needed]]]} The Sunni-led Arab countries and the United States supported Iraq throughout the war. In 1981, Israel destroyed a nuclear reactor of Iraq. In midst of the war, between 1983 to 1986, Kurds led rebellion against the regime. In retaliation, the government coordinated Anfal campaign, led to the killing of 50,000–100,000 civilians. During the war, Saddam extensively used chemical weapons against Iranians. The war, which ended in stalemate in 1988, killed between half a million and 1.5 million people.

Kuwait's refusal to waive Iraq's debt and reducing oil prices pushed Saddam to take military action against it.^[44] On 2 August 1990, the Iraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait as its 19th governorate, starting the Gulf War. This led to military intervention by the United States-led alliance. The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets and then launched a 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in southern Iraq and Kuwait. Iraq also attempted to invade Saudi Arabia and attacked Israel. Iraq's armed forces were devastated during the war. Sanctions were imposed on Iraq, following the invasion of Kuwait, which resulted economic decline. After the end of the war in 1991, Iraqi Kurds and Shi'ite Muslims in northern and southern Iraq, led several uprisings against Saddam's regime, but these were repressed. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians were killed. During the uprisings, the United States, the United Kingdom, Turkey and France, claiming authority under UNSC Resolution 688, established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish population from attacks and autonomy was given to Kurds. raq was also affected by the Iraqi Kurdish Civil War from 1994 to 1997. Around 40,000 fighters and civilians were killed. Between 2001 and 2003, the Kurdistan Regional Government and Ansar al-Islam engaged in conflict, which would merge with the upcoming war.

Post-Saddam Iraq

See main article: Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011), Iraq War and History of Iraq (2011–present). After the September 11 attacks, George W. Bush began planning the overthrow of Saddam in what is now widely regarded as a false pretense. Saddam's Iraq was included in Bush's "axis of evil". The United States Congress passed joint resolution, which authorized the use of armed force against Iraq. In November 2002. The UN Security Council passed resolution 1441. On 20 March 2003, the United States-led coalition invaded Iraq, as part of global war on terror. Within weeks, coalition forces occupied much of Iraq, with the Iraqi Army adopting guerrilla tactics to confront coalition forces. Following the fall of Baghdad in the first week of April, Saddam's regime had completely lost control of Iraq.^[45] A statue of Saddam was toppled in Baghdad, symbolizing the end of his rule.

The Coalition Provisional Authority began disbanding the Ba'ath Army and expelling Ba'athists from the new government. The insurgents fought against the coalition forces and the newly installed government. Saddam was captured and executed. The Shia–Sunni civil war took place from 2006 to 2008. The coalition forces were criticized for war crimes such as the Abu Ghraib torture, the Fallujah massacre, the Mahmudiyah rape and killings and the Mukaradeeb wedding party massacre. Following the withdrawal of US troops in 2011, the occupation ceased and war ended. The war in Iraq has resulted in between 151,000 and 1.2 million Iraqis being killed.

The subsequent efforts to rebuild the country amidst sectarian violence and the rise of the Islamic State began after the war. Iraq was galvanized by the civil war in Syria. Continuing discontent over Nouri al-Maliki's government led to protests, after which a coalition of Ba'athist and Sunni militants launched an offensive against the government, initiating full-scale war in Iraq. The climax of the campaign was an offensive in Northern Iraq by the Islamic State (ISIS) that marked the beginning of the rapid territorial expansion by the group, prompting an American-led intervention. By the end of 2017, ISIS had lost all its territory in Iraq. Iran has also intervened and expanded its influence through sectarian Khomeinist militias.

In 2014, Sunni insurgents belonging to the Islamic State group seized control of large swathes of land including several major cities, like Tikrit, Fallujah and Mosul, creating hundreds of thousands of internally displaced persons amid reports of atrocities by ISIL fighters. An estimated 500,000 civilians fled from Mosul. Around 5,000 Yazidis were killed in the genocide by ISIS, as a part of the war. With the help of US-led intervention in Iraq, the Iraqi forces successfully defeated ISIS. The war officially ended in 2017, with the Iraqi government declaring victory over ISIS. In October 2022, Abdul Latif Rashid was elected president after winning the parliamentary election.^[46] In 2022, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani became Prime Minister.^[47]

The electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand.^{[48] [49] [50]} Corruption remains endemic throughout Iraqi governance while the United States-endorsed sectarian political system has driven increased levels of violent terrorism and sectarian conflicts.^{[51] [52]} Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts while water reserves are rapidly depleting.^[53] The country has been in a prolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in the Tigris and Euphrates are down 30-40%. Half the country's farmland is at risk of desertification. Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year."^[54]

Geography

See main article: Geography of Iraq. Iraq lies between latitudes 29° and 38° N, and longitudes 39° and 49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 4370720NaN0, it is the 58th-largest country in the world.

It has a coastline measuring 580NaN0 on the northern Persian Gulf.^[55] Further north, but below the main headwaters only, the country easily encompasses the Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain. Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab, thence the Persian Gulf. Broadly flanking this estuary (known as arvandrūd: اروندرود among Iranians) are marshlands, semi-agricultural. Flanking and between the two major rivers are fertile alluvial plains, as the rivers carry about 600000000NaN0 of silt annually to the delta.

The central part of the south, which slightly tapers in favour of other countries, is natural vegetation marsh mixed with rice paddies and is humid, relative to the rest of the plains. Iraq has the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range and the eastern part of the Syrian Desert.

Rocky deserts cover about 40 percent of Iraq. Another 30 percent is mountainous with bitterly cold winters. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 36110NaN0. Iraq is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Zagros Mountains forest steppe, Middle East steppe, Mesopotamian Marshes, Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests, Arabian Desert, Mesopotamian shrub desert, and South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert.^[56]

Climate

Much of Iraq has a hot arid climate with subtropical influence. Summer temperatures average above for most of the country and frequently exceed 48°C. Winter temperatures infrequently exceed 15°C with maxima roughly 5to and night-time lows 1to. Typically, precipitation is low; most places receive less than 2501NaN1 annually, with maximum rainfall occurring during the winter months. Rainfall during the summer is rare, except in northern parts of the country.

The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding. Iraq is highly vulnerable to climate change.^[57] The country is subject to rising temperatures and reduced rainfall, and suffers from increasing water scarcity for a human population that rose tenfold between 1890 and 2010 and continues to rise.^{[58] [59]}

The country's electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand.^{[48] [49]} Corruption remains endemic throughout all levels of Iraqi governance while the political system has exacerbated sectarian conflict.^{[51] [52]} Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts across the country while water reserves are rapidly depleting.^[53] The country has been in a prolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in the Tigris and Euphrates are down between 30 and 40%. Half of the country's farmland is at risk of desertification.^[50] Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year".^[54]

However, in 2023, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani announced that government was working on a wider "Iraqi vision for climate action". The plan would include promoting clean and renewable energy, new irrigation and water treatment projects and reduced industrial gas flaring, he said. Sudani said Iraq was "moving forward to conclude contracts for constructing renewable energy power plants to provide one-third of our electricity demand by 2030". In addition, Iraq will plant 5 million trees across the country and will create green belts around cities to act as windbreaks against dust storms.^{[60] [61]}

In the same year, Iraq and TotalEnergies signed a $27 billion energy deal that aims to increase oil production and boost the country's capacity to produce energy with four oil, gas and renewables projects. According to experts, the project will "accelerate Iraq’s path to energy self-sufficiency and advance Iraq’s collective climate change objectives".^{[62] [63]}

Biodiversity

See main article: Wildlife of Iraq. The wildlife of Iraq includes its flora and fauna and their natural habitats.^[64] Iraq has multiple and diverse biomes which include the mountainous region in the north to the wet marshlands along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, while western part of the country comprises mainly desert and some semi-arid regions. Many of Iraq's bird species were endangered, including seven of Iraq's mammal species and 12 of its bird species. The Mesopotamian marches in the middle and south are home to approximately 50 species of birds, and rare species of fish. At risk are some 50% of the world's marbled teal population that live in the marshes, along with 60% of the world's population of Basra reed-warbler.^[65]

The Asiatic lion, in the present-day extinct in the region, has remained a prominent symbol of the country throughout history. Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes, during the time of Saddam's government, caused there a significant drop in biological life. Since the 2003–2011, flow is restored and the ecosystem has begun to recover.^[66] Iraqi corals are some of the most extreme heat-tolerant as the seawater in this area ranges between 14 and 34 °C.^[67] Aquatic or semi-aquatic wildlife occurs in and around these, the major lakes are Lake Habbaniyah, Lake Milh, Lake Qadisiyah and Lake Tharthar.^[68]

Government and politics

See main article: Politics of Iraq. The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as a democratic, federal parliamentary republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law. The president is the head of state, the prime minister is the head of government, and the constitution provides for two deliberative bodies, the Council of Representatives and the Council of Union. The judiciary is free and independent of the executive and the legislature.^[69] The National Alliance is the main Shia parliamentary bloc, and was established as a result of a merger of Prime Minister Nouri Maliki's State of Law Coalition and the Iraqi National Alliance.^[70] The Iraqi National Movement is led by Iyad Allawi, a secular Shia widely supported by Sunnis. The party has a more consistent anti-sectarian perspective than most of its rivals. The Kurdistan List is dominated by two parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party led by Masood Barzani and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan headed by Jalal Talabani. Baghdad is Iraq's capital, home to the seat of government. Located in the Green Zone, which contains governmental headquarters and the army, in addition to containing the headquarters of the American embassy and the headquarters of foreign organizations and agencies for other countries.

According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Iraq was the third most electoral democratic country in the Middle East.^[71] In 2023, according to the Fragile States Index, Iraq was the world's 31st most politically unstable country.^[72] Transparency International ranks Iraq's government as the 23rd most corrupt government in the world.^[73] Under Saddam, the government employed 1 million employees, but this increased to around 7 million in 2016. In combination with decreased oil prices, the government budget deficit is near 25% of GDP .^[74]

In September 2017, a one-sided referendum was held in Iraq’s Kurdistan Region regarding Kurdish independence, which resulted in 92% (of those participating in the region) voting in favor of independence.^[75] The referendum was rejected by the federal government and regarded as illegal by the Federal Supreme Court.^[76] Following this, an armed conflict ensued between the federal government and the Kurdistan Regional Government which resulted in Kurdish defeat and capitulation; Kurdistan Region subsequently lost territory it had previously occupied, and the president of Kurdistan Region officially resigned,^[77] and finally, the regional government announced that it would respect the Federal Supreme Court's ruling that no Iraqi province is allowed to secede, effectively abandoning the referendum.^[78] According to a report published by The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, a U.S-based think tank, since Kurdistan Region’s failed bid to gain independence, the federal government has been severely punishing it both politically and economically. In gradual steps, the federal government has consistently weakened Kurdistan Region’s ability to administer its own affairs by revoking crucial authorities that had previously defined its autonomy.^[79] Furthermore, since it won a pivotal ICC arbitration case, the federal government has also been refusing Kurdistan Region access to its most important source of income, namely, oil exports, and the latter has had no other option but to concede.^[80] Some have argued that this signals the Iraqi government’s intention to abandon federalism and return to a centralized political system,^[81] and in a leaked letter sent in 2023 to the U.S president, the prime minister of Kurdistan region wrote of an impending collapse of Kurdistan Region.^[82]

Law

See main article: Law of Iraq. In October 2005, the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in a referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varied widely between the country's territories.^[83] The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Kurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on 15 December 2005. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, as did Assyrian and Turcoman minorities.Law no. 188 of the year 1959 (Personal Status Law)^[84] made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16.^[85] Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law.^[86] Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offences.^[87] The code is based on French civil law as well as Sunni and Jafari (Shi'ite) interpretations of Sharia.^[88]

In 2004, the CPA chief executive L. Paul Bremer said he would veto any constitutional draft stating that sharia is the principal basis of law.^[89] The declaration enraged many local Shia clerics,^[90] and by 2005 the United States had relented, allowing a role for sharia in the constitution to help end a stalemate on the draft constitution.^[91] The Iraqi Penal Code is the statutory law of Iraq.

Military

See main article: Iraqi Armed Forces and List of current equipment of the Iraqi Ground Forces.

Iraqi security forces are composed of forces serving under the Ministry of Interior (MOI) and the Ministry of Defense (MOD), as well as the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Bureau (CTB), which oversees the Iraqi Special Operations Forces, and the Popular Mobilization Committee (PMC). Both CTB and PMC report directly to the Prime Minister of Iraq. MOD forces include the Iraqi Army, the Iraqi Air Force, Iraqi Navy, and the Iraqi Air Defence Command.^[92] The MOD also runs a Joint Staff College, training army, navy, and air force officers, with support from the NATO Training Mission - Iraq. The college was established at Ar Rustamiyah on 27 September 2005.^[93] The center runs Junior Staff and Senior Staff Officer Courses designed for first lieutenants to majors.

The current Iraqi armed forces was rebuilt on American foundations and with huge amounts of American military aid at all levels. The army consists of 13 infantry divisions and one motorised infantry. Each division consists of four brigades and comprises 14,000 soldiers. Before 2003, Iraq was mostly equipped with Soviet-made military equipment, but since then the country has turned to Western suppliers.^[94] The Iraqi air force is designed to support ground forces with surveillance, reconnaissance and troop lift. Two reconnaissance squadrons use light aircraft, three helicopter squadrons are used to move troops and one air transportation squadron uses C-130 transport aircraft to move troops, equipment, and supplies. The air force currently has 5,000 personnel.^[95]

As of February 2011, the navy had approximately 5,000 sailors, including 800 marines. The navy consists of an operational headquarters, five afloat squadrons, and two marine battalions, designed to protect shorelines and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration. On 4 November 2019, more than 100 Australian Defence Force personnel left Darwin for the 10th rotation of Task Group Taji, based north of Baghdad. The Australian contingent mentors the Iraqi School of Infantry, where the Iraqi Security Forces are trained. However, Australia's contribution was reduced from 250 to 120 ADF personnel, which along with New Zealand had trained over 45,000 ISF members before that.^[96]

Foreign relations

See main article: Foreign relations of Iraq.

The Iraqi monarchy followed a pro-Western foreign policy and was part of the Baghdad Pact, an alliance against the Soviet Union, during the Cold War.^[97] In 1958, Iraq and Jordan formed a confederation, as a response to Gamal Abdel Nasser's United Arab Republic between Egypt and Syria. During the time of Qasim's rule, Iraq withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and formed close ties with the Eastern Bloc. Qasim also claimed Kuwait. However, the pro-Nasserist government recognized Kuwait's independence in 1963, after Qasim was overthrown and killed. The Ba'athist Regime maintained ties with pro-Soviet countries.^[98] Saddam provided financial aid to North Vietnam, during the Vietnam War. After the end of the war in 1975, Saddam provided economic aid, to rebuild Vietnam. He even refused to ask for repaying the amount of the financial assistance, a move, which is respected even by his opponents. France and India were the biggest trade partners of Iraq during Saddam's presidency.^[99] During the Iran–Iraq War, the United States supported Iraq. Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Kuwait provided financial support to Saddam, throughout the eight-year-long war. Saddam was widely known for his pro-Palestinian and anti-Israel stance. He provided financial aid to the State of Palestine. He also funded to support Palestinians during the Second Intifada. France, Russia and China strongly condemned the U.S. invasion of Iraq.After the end of the Iraq War, Iraq sought and strengthened regional economic cooperation and improved relations with neighboring countries.^[100] On 12 February 2009, Iraq officially became the 186th State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under the provisions of this treaty, Iraq is considered a party with declared stockpiles of chemical weapons. Because of their late accession, Iraq is the only State Party exempt from the existing timeline for destruction of their chemical weapons.^[101] Since the situation eased, Iraq re-engaged with its Arab neighbors while maintaining relations with Iran in an attempt to position Iraq as a country that would not exacerbate the security concerns of its neighbors and seeking a pragmatic balance in foreign relations. Iran–Iraq relations have flourished since 2005 by the exchange of high-level visits. A conflict occurred in December 2009, when Iraq accused Iran of seizing an oil well on the border.^[102] Relations with Turkey are tense, largely because of the Kurdistan Regional Government, as clashes between Turkey and the PKK continue.^[103] In October 2011, the Turkish parliament renewed a law that gives Turkish forces the ability to pursue rebels over the border in Iraq.^[104] Turkey's "Great Anatolia Project" reduced Iraq's water supply and affected agriculture.^[105] Prime Minister Mohammed Shia al-Sudani has sought to normalise relations with Syria in order to expand co-operation.^[106] Iraq is also seeking to deepen its ties with the Gulf Cooperation Council countries.^[107] Foreign ministers of Iraq and Kuwait have announced that they were working on a definitive agreement on border demarcation.^{[108] [109]}

On 17 November 2008, the US and Iraq agreed to a Status of Forces Agreement,^[110] as part of the broader Strategic Framework Agreement.^[111] On 5 January 2020, the Iraqi parliament voted for a resolution that urges the government to work on expelling US troops from Iraq.^[112] The resolution was passed two days after a U.S. drone strike that killed Iranian Major General Qasem Soleimani of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, commander of the Quds Force. The resolution specifically calls for ending of a 2014 agreement allowing Washington to help Iraq against Islamic State groups by sending troops.^[113] This resolution will also signify ending an agreement with Washington to station troops in Iraq as Iran vows to retaliate after the killing.^[114] On 28 September 2020, Washington made preparations to withdraw diplomats from Iraq, as a result of Iranian-backed militias firing rockets at the American Embassy in Baghdad.^[115] The officials said that the move was seen as an escalation of American confrontation with Iran.^[116] The United States significantly reduced its military presence in Iraq after the defeat of ISIS.

Iran has also intervened since 2014, expanding through sectarian parties and Khomeinist militias. The intervention traces its roots in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Various militia groups that have emerged in the country since 2003 have ties with Iran. The Islamic Resistance in Iraq and groups within the Popular Mobilization Forces are part of Iran's proxies — the Axis of Resistance, which includes other proxies from Lebanon, Palestine, Yemen, Bahrain, Afghanistan and Syria. These Iraqi militias have also participated in confronting Israel, during the Israel–Hamas War, along with other groups of the Axis of Resistance.

Human rights

See main article: Human rights in Iraq.

See also: Human rights in ISIL-controlled territory and Mass executions in ISIL occupied Mosul. Relations between Iraq and its Kurdish population have been sour in recent history, especially with Saddam Hussein's genocidal campaign against them in the 1980s. After uprisings during the early 90s, many Kurds fled their homeland and no-fly zones were established in northern Iraq to prevent more conflicts. Despite historically poor relations, some progress has been made, and Iraq elected its first Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani, in 2005. Furthermore, Kurdish is now an official language of Iraq alongside Arabic according to Article 4 of the Constitution.^[36]

LGBT rights in Iraq remain limited. Although decriminalised, homosexuality remains stigmatised in Iraqi society.^[117] Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory have been recorded as highly violated. It included mass executions in Islamic State-occupied part of Mosul and genocide of the Yazidis in Yazidi populated Sinjar, which is in northern Iraq.^[118]

Administrative divisions

See main article: Governorates of Iraq. Iraq is composed of eighteen governorates (or provinces) (ar|italic=yes|muhafadhat, singular Arabic: muhafadhah). The governorates are subdivided into districts (or Arabic: qadhas), which are further divided into sub-districts (or Arabic: nawāḥī). A nineteenth governorate, Halabja Governorate, is unrecognised by the Iraqi government.

Economy

See main article: Economy of Iraq.

Iraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. The lack of development in other sectors has resulted in 18%–30% unemployed and a per capita GDP of $4,812.^[119] Public sector employment accounted for nearly 60% of full-time employment in 2011.^[120] The oil export industry, which dominates the Iraqi economy, generates very little employment.^[120] Currently only a modest percentage of women (the highest estimate for 2011 was 22%) participate in the labour force.^[120]

Prior to US occupation, Iraq's centrally planned economy prohibited foreign ownership of Iraqi businesses, ran most large industries as state-owned enterprises, and imposed large tariffs to keep out foreign goods.^[121] During the regime of Saddam Hussein in the 1970s, Iraq developed as one of the most developed countries in the world.^[122] After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Coalition Provisional Authority quickly began issuing many binding orders privatising Iraq's economy and opening it up to foreign investment. On 20 November 2004, the Paris Club of creditor countries agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown another $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief was to be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.^[123] The official currency in Iraq is the Iraqi dinar. The Coalition Provisional Authority issued new dinar coins and notes, with the notes printed by De La Rue using modern anti-forgery techniques.^[124] Jim Cramer's 20 October 2009 endorsement of the Iraqi dinar on CNBC has further piqued interest in the investment.^[125]

Five years after the invasion, an estimated 2.4 million people were internally displaced (with a further two million refugees outside Iraq), four million Iraqis were considered food-insecure (a quarter of children were chronically malnourished) and only a third of Iraqi children had access to safe drinking water.^[126] In 2022, and after more than 30 years after the UN Compensation Commission (UNCC) was created to ensure restitution for Kuwait following the Iraqi invasion of 1990, the reparations body announced that Iraq has paid a total of $52.4 billion in war reparations to Kuwait.^[127] According to the Overseas Development Institute, international NGOs face challenges in carrying out their mission, leaving their assistance "piecemeal and largely conducted undercover, hindered by insecurity, a lack of coordinated funding, limited operational capacity and patchy information". International NGOs have been targeted and during the first 5 years, 94 aid workers were killed, 248 injured, 24 arrested or detained and 89 kidnapped or abducted. Although overthrow of Saddam in 2003 have caused post-war conflict in Iraq, affecting the economy.^{[128] [129]} However, the Kurdish and Shia populated regions of Iraq have experienced economic boom since the end of the 2003–2011 war.^{[130] [131] [132]} In addition, Iraq is an agricultural country. Tourism in Iraq stands to be a major growth sector, including archaeological tourism and religious tourism while the country is also considered to be a potential location for ecotourism.^{[133] [134] [135]}

Tourism

See main article: Tourism in Iraq. Iraq was an important tourist destination for many years but that changed dramatically during the war with Iran and after the 2003 invasion by US and allies.^[136] As Iraq continues to develop and stabilises, the tourism in Iraq is still facing many challenges, little has been made by the government to meet its tremendous potential as a global tourist destination, and gain the associated economic benefits, mainly due to conflicts.^[137] Sites from Iraq's ancient past are numerous and many that are close to large cities have been excavated. Babylon has seen major recent restoration; known for its famous Ziggurat (the inspiration for the Biblical Tower of Babel), the Hanging Gardens (one of the Seven Wonders of the World), and the Ishtar Gate, making it a prime destination.

Nineveh, a rival to Babylon, has also seen significant restoration and reconstruction. Ur, one of the first Sumerian cities, which is near Nasiriyya, has been partially restored. This is a list of examples of some significant sites in a country with a tremendous archaeological and historic wealth.^[138] Iraq is considered to be a potential location for ecotourism.^[139] The tourism in Iraq includes also making pilgrimages to holy Shia Islamic sites near Karbala and Najaf. Since 2003, Najaf and Karbala have experienced economic boom, due to religious tourism. Mosul Museum is the second largest museum in Iraq after the Iraq Museum in Baghdad. It contains ancient Mesopotamian artifacts.

Saddam built hundreds of palaces and monuments across the country. Some of them include Al-Faw Palace, As-Salam Palace and Radwaniyah Palace.^[140] Al-Faw Palace is currently occupied by the American University of Iraq. Since Saddam's overthrow, the palaces are open to tourists, though they are not officially functioning, and the government of Iraq is considering to sell them for useful purposes. A majority of these structures were built after the 1991 Gulf War, when Iraq was put under sanctions by the United Nations. Saddam Hussein reconstructed part of Babylon, one of the world's earliest cities, using bricks inscribed with his name to associate himself with the region's past glories.^[141] One of his palaces in Basra was turned into a museum, despite it was time when Iraq allied with the United States was engaged in war with the ISIS.^[142]

Transport

See main article: Transport in Iraq. Iraq has a modern network of highways. Roadways extended 45550km (28,300miles).^[143] The roadway also connect Iraq to neighboring countries of Iran, Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. There are more than seven million passenger cars, over million commercial taxis, buses, and trucks in use. On major highways the maximum speed is 110km/h.^[144]

Iraq has about 104 airports as of 2012. Major airports include Baghdad International Airport, Basra International Airport, Erbil International Airport, Kirkuk International Airport, Sulaimaniyah International Airport and Najaf International Airport.^[145] Mosul International Airport was captured by ISIS militants during the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive.^[146] Despite the government re-taking of the city, the airport remained closed. The government is constructing an international airport for Karbala and proposed an international airport in Nasiriyah, with partnership with China.^[147]

Oil and energy

See main article: Oil reserves in Iraq and Energy in Iraq. With its 143.1Goilbbl of proved oil reserves, Iraq ranks third in the world behind Venezuela and Saudi Arabia in the amount of oil reserves.^{[148] [149]} Oil production levels reached 3.4 million barrels per day by December 2012.^[150] Only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone.^[151] Iraq was one of the founding members of OPEC.^{[152] [153]}

During the 1970s Iraq produced up to 3.5 million barrels per day, but sanctions imposed against Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait in 1990 crippled the country's oil sector. The sanctions prohibited Iraq from exporting oil until 1996 and Iraq's output declined by 85% in the years following the First Gulf War. The sanctions were lifted in 2003 after the US-led invasion removed Saddam Hussein from power, but development of Iraq's oil resources has been hampered by the ongoing conflict., despite improved security and billions of dollars in oil revenue, Iraq still generates about half the electricity that customers demand, leading to protests during the hot summer months.^[154] The Iraq oil law, a proposed piece of legislation submitted to the Council of Representatives of Iraq in 2007, has failed to gain approval due to disagreements among Iraq's various political blocs.^{[155] [156]} Al Başrah Oil Terminal is a trans-shipment facility from the pipelines to the tankers and uses supertankers.

According to a US Study from May 2007, between 100000oilbbl/d and 300000oilbbl/d of Iraq's declared oil production over the past four years could have been siphoned off through corruption or smuggling.^[157] In 2008, Al Jazeera reported $13 billion of Iraqi oil revenues in US care was improperly accounted for, of which $2.6 billion is totally unaccounted for.^[158] Some reports that the government has reduced corruption in public procurement of oil; however, reliable reports of bribery and kickbacks to government officials persist.^[159]

On 30 June and 11 December 2009, the Iraqi ministry of oil awarded service contracts to international oil companies for some of Iraq's many oil fields.^{[160] [161]} Oil fields contracted include the "super-giant" Majnoon oil field, Halfaya Field, West Qurna Field and Rumaila Field.^[161] BP and China National Petroleum Corporation won a deal to develop Rumaila, the largest Iraqi oil field.^{[162] [163]} On 14 March 2014, the International Energy Agency said Iraq's oil output jumped by half a million barrels a day in February to average 3.6 million barrels a day. The country had not pumped that much oil since 1979, when Saddam Hussein rose to power.^[164] However, on 14 July 2014, as sectarian strife had taken hold, Kurdistan Regional Government forces seized control of the Bai Hassan and Kirkuk oilfields in the north of the country, taking them from Iraq's control. Baghdad condemned the seizure and threatened "dire consequences" if the fields were not returned.^[165] On 2018, the UN estimated that oil accounts for 99% of Iraq's revenue.^[166] As of 2021, the oil sector provided about 92% of foreign exchange earnings.^[167]

Water supply and sanitation

See main article: Water supply and sanitation in Iraq.

Three decades of war greatly cut the existing water resources management system for several major cities. This prompted widespread water supply and sanitation shortfalls thus poor water and service quality.^[59] This is combined with few businesses and households who are fully environmentally aware and legally compliant however the large lakes, as pictured, alleviate supply relative to many comparators in Western Asia beset by more regular drought. Access to potable water diverges among governorates and between urban and rural areas.91% of the population has access to potable water. Forming this figure: in rural areas, 77% of people have access to improved (treated or fully naturally filtered) drinking water sources; and 98% in urban areas.^[168] Much water is discarded during treatment, due to much outmoded equipment, raising energy burden and reducing supply.

Infrastructure

See main article: Investment in post-invasion Iraq. Although many infrastructure projects had already begun, at the end of 2013 Iraq had a housing crisis. The then very war-ravaged country was set to complete 5 percent of the 2.5 million homes it needs to build by 2016 to keep up with demand, confirmed the Minister for Construction and Housing.^[169] In 2009, the Iraq Britain Business Council formed. Its key impetus was House of Lords member and trade expert Lady Nicholson. In mid 2013, South Korean firm Daewoo reached a deal to build Bismayah New City of about 600,000 residents in 100,000 homes.^[170] In December 2020, the Prime Minister launched the second phase of the Grand Faw Port via winning bid of project manager/head contractor Daewood at $2.7 billion.^[171] In late 2023, the Iraqi government announced that it will build a total of 15 new cities across the country, in an attempt to tackle a persistent housing problem, according to officials.^[172] This project falls under the Iraqi government's plan and strategy to establish new residential cities outside city centers, aiming to alleviate the urban housing crisis. The first 5 new cities cities will be located in Baghdad, Babylon, Nineveh, Anbar and Karbala, while another 10 new residential cities will be launched in other governorates. The initial phase of the [housing] plan began in late 2023, when Iraqi Prime Minister Al-Sudani laid the foundation stone of Al-Jawahiri city. Located west of the capital, the new city will host 30,000 housing units which will cost $2 billion. It is expected to be completed in four to five years. According to officials, none of it is financed by the government.^{[173] [174] [175]}

In early 2024, the Iraqi government signed a contract for the new Ali El-Wardi residential city project with the director of Ora Real Estate Development Company, Naguib Sawiris, which is the largest project among the five new residential city projects in its first phase.^[176] Located east of Baghdad, the city will offer over 100,000 residential units. First of its kind in the country, the city will specialize in providing advanced technological infrastructure for smart cities and will match up to the highest sustainability standards.^[177] The goal for the Iraqi government is to build 250,000 to 300,000 housing units for poor and middle-class families and address a housing crisis. In addition, the cities will include universities, commercial centers, schools and health centers. In 2024, and during a visit to Baghdad by Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, a quadrilateral memorandum of understanding regarding cooperation in Iraq Development Road project was signed between Iraq, Türkiye, Qatar, UAE. The deal was inked by the transportation ministers from each country. The 1,200-kilometer project with railway and highways which will connect the Grand Faw Port, aimed to be the largest port in the Middle East. It is planned to be completed by 2025 to the Turkish border at an expected cost of $17 billion. According to Iraqi officials, the Development Road is a strategic national project for Iraq, and will become the largest sea port in the Middle East, as such strengthening Iraq's geopolitical position.^{[178] [179] [180]}

Demographics

See main article: Demographics of Iraq and List of largest cities of Iraq.

The estimate of the total Iraqi population is . Iraq's population was estimated to be 2 million in 1878.^[181] In 2013 Iraq's population reached 35 million amid a post-war population boom.^[182] Those three vilayets of the Ottoman Empire — Mosul, Basra and Baghdad — were designated as concentration of different ethnic groups.

Cities and towns

See main article: List of cities in Iraq.

Ethnic groups

Iraq's native population is predominantly Arab, but also includes other ethnic groups such as Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Yazidis, Shabaks, Armenians, Mandaeans, Circassians, and Kawliya.

A report by the European Parliamentary Research Service suggests that, in 2015, there were 24 million Arabs (14 million Shia and 9 million Sunni); 4.7 million Sunni Kurds (plus 500,000 Faili Kurds and 200,000 Kaka'i); 3 million (mostly Sunni) Iraqi Turkmens; 1 million Black Iraqis; 500,000 Christians (including Assyrians and Armenians); 500,000 Yazidis; 250,000 Shabaks; 50,000 Roma; 3,000 Mandaeans; 2,000 Circassians; 1,000 of the Baháʼí Faith; and a few dozens Jews.^[183]

According to the CIA World Factbook, citing a 1987 Iraqi government estimate, the population of Iraq is 75–80% Arab followed by 15–20% Kurds. In addition, the estimate claims that other minorities form 5% of the country's population, including the Turkmen/Turcoman, Assyrians, Yezidis, Shabak, Kaka'i, Bedouins, Roma, Circassians, Mandaeans, and Persians. However, the International Crisis Group points out that figures from the 1987 census, as well as the 1967, 1977, and 1997 censuses, "are all considered highly problematic, due to suspicions of regime manipulation" because Iraqi citizens were only allowed to indicate belonging to either the Arab or Kurdish ethnic groups;^[184] consequently, this skewed the number of other ethnic minorities, such as Iraq's third largest ethnic group – the Turkmens.

The historic Assyrian Quarter in Baghdad housed 150,000 Armenians in 2003. Most of them fled, following the escalation of war, and today only 1,500 Armenians are found in the city. Around 20,000 Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq.^[185] Iraq has a community of 2,500 Chechens,^[186] and some 20,000 Armenians.^[187] In southern Iraq, there is a community of Iraqis of African descent, a legacy of the slavery practised in the Islamic Caliphate beginning before the Zanj Rebellion of the 9th century, and Basra's role as a key port.^[188] It is the most populous country in the Arabian Plate.^[189]

Languages

See main article: Languages of Iraq. The main languages spoken in Iraq are Mesopotamian Arabic and Kurdish, followed by the Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialect of Turkish, and the Neo-Aramaic languages (specifically Chaldean and Assyrian dialects). Arabic and Kurdish are written with versions of the Arabic script. Since 2005, the Turkmen/Turkoman have switched from the Arabic script to the Turkish alphabet. In addition, the Neo-Aramaic languages use the Syriac script. Other smaller minority languages include Mandaic, Shabaki, Armenian, Circassian and Persian.

Prior to the invasion in 2003, Arabic was the sole official language. Since the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in 2005, both Arabic and Kurdish are recognised (Article 4) as official languages of Iraq, while three other languages, Turkmen, Syriac and Armenian, are also recognised as minority languages. In addition, any region or province may declare other languages official if a majority of the population approves in a general referendum.^[36]

According to the Constitution of Iraq (Article 4): The Arabic language and the Kurdish language are the two official languages of Iraq. The right of Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Syriac, and Armenian shall be guaranteed in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines, or in any other language in private educational institutions.

Religion

See main article: Religion in Iraq.

See also: Irreligion in Iraq. Religions in Iraq are dominantly Abrahamic religions.^[190] The CIA World Factbook estimated in 2015 that between 95 and 98% of Iraqis followed Islam, with 61–64% being Shia and 29–34% being Sunni. Christianity accounted for 1%, and the rest (1-4%) practiced Yazidism, Mandaeism, and other religions. An older 2011 Pew Research Center estimated that 51% of Muslims in Iraq see themselves as Shia, 42% as Sunni, while 5% as "just a Muslim".^[191] Iraq is also home to two of the holiest places among the Shi'as – Najaf and Karbala.^[192]

Christianity in Iraq has its roots from the conception of the Church of the East in the 5th century AD, predating the existence of Islam in the region of Iraq.^[193] Iraqi Christians are predominantly native Assyrians belonging to the Ancient Church of the East, Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Catholic Church and Syriac Orthodox Church. There is also a significant population of Armenian Christians in Iraq who had fled Turkey during the Armenian genocide. Christians numbered over 1.4 million in 1987 or 8% of the estimated population of 16.3 million and 550,000 in 1947 or 12% of the population of 4.6 millions.^[194] After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, violence against Christians rose, with reports of abduction, torture, bombings, and killings.^{[195] [196] [197]} The post-2003 war have displaced much of the remaining Christian community from their homeland as a result of ethnic and religious persecution at the hands of Islamic extremists.^{[198] [199] [200] [201] [202]}

Iraq is home to one of the oldest and community of Jews in the Middle East. Referred to as the Jews of Babylon, it is first Jewish diaspora.^[203] In 1948, there were approximately 150,000 Jews in Iraq. After the establishment of Israel in 1948, Jews emigrated fleeing persecution in Iraq. By the 1970s, around 10,000 to 15,000 Jews lived in Iraq.^{[204] [205] [206] [207]} After the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in 2003, fear increased among Jews, as the community dwindled further.^[208] Today, there are an estimated 400 Jews in Iraq.^[209] After the war, few of them have reported to be returned back to the country.^[210] Iraq is home to over 250 Jewish sites. Some of them includes the Great Synagogue of Baghdad, the Tomb of Joshua, Prophet Nahum Synagogue, Ezekiel's Tomb and the Tomb of Ezra.

There are also small ethno-religious minority populations of Mandaeans, Shabaks, Yarsan and Yezidis remaining. Prior to 2003 their numbers together may have been 2 million, the majority Yarsan, a non-Islamic religion with roots in pre-Islamic and pre-Christian religion. Yazidis are mostly concentrated around the Sinjar Mountains.^[211] Mandaeans live primarily around Baghdad, Fallujah, Basra and Hillah.^[212]

Diaspora and refugees

See main article: Refugees of Iraq and Assyrian exodus from Iraq. The dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis fled the country after the multinational invasion of Iraq in 2003.^[213] The UN Refugee agency estimated in 2021 that 1.1 million were displaced within the country.^[214] In 2007, the UN said that about 40% of Iraq's middle class was believed to have fled and that most had fled systematic persecution and had no desire to return.^[215] Subsequently, the diaspora seemed to be returning, as security improved; the Iraqi government claimed that 46,000 refugees returned to their homes in October 2007 alone.^[216]

In 2011, nearly 3 million Iraqis had been displaced, with 1.3 million within Iraq and 1.6 million in neighbouring countries, mainly Jordan and Syria.^[217] More than half of Iraqi Christians had fled the country since the US-led invasion.^{[218] [219]} According to official United States Citizenship and Immigration Services statistics, 58,811 Iraqis had been granted refugee-status citizenship .^[220] After the start of the Syrian Civil War in 2011, numerous Iraqis in Syria returned to their native country.^[221] To escape the Syrian civil war, over 252,000 Syrian refugees of varying ethnicities have fled to Iraq since 2012.^[222]

Health

See main article: Health in Iraq. In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 6.84% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 6.96 physicians and 13.92 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.^[223] The life expectancy at birth was 68.49 years in 2010, or 65.13 years for males and 72.01 years for females.^[224] This is down from a peak life expectancy of 71.31 years in 1996.^[225]

Iraq had developed a centralised free health care system in the 1970s using a hospital based, capital-intensive model of curative care. The country depended on large-scale imports of medicines, medical equipment and even nurses, paid for with oil export income, according to a "Watching Brief" report issued jointly by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in July 2003. Unlike other poorer countries, which focused on mass health care using primary care practitioners, Iraq developed a Westernised system of sophisticated hospitals with advanced medical procedures, provided by specialist physicians. The UNICEF/WHO report noted that prior to 1990, 97% of the urban dwellers and 71% of the rural population had access to free primary health care; just 2% of hospital beds were privately managed.^[226]

Education

See main article: Education in Iraq. Before Iraq faced economic sanctions from the UN and was invaded by the United States, it already had an advanced and successful education system.^[227] However, it has now been "de-developing" in its educational success. Although Saddam was viewed as a repressive leader, his government successfully turned Iraq into a leading center of higher education. Since the implementation of the MDGs, education in Iraq has shown improvement. Enrollment numbers nearly doubled from 2000 to 2012, reaching six million students.^[228] By 2015–2016, around 9.2 million children were attending school, with a steady annual increase of 4.1% in enrollment rates.

However, the rapid increase in primary education students has strained the system.^[228] Education receives only 5.7% of government spending, leading to a lack of investment in schools and poor educational rankings in the region.^[228] UNICEF found that funding has been wasted, resulting in increasing dropout and repetition rates.^[228] Dropout rates range from 1.5% to 2.5%, with girls being affected more due to economic or family reasons. Repetition rates have reached almost 17%, causing a loss of approximately 20% of education funding in 2014–2015.^[228] Regional disparities greatly impact enrollment rates for children in primary education in Iraq. Conflict-ridden areas like Saladin have seen over 90% of school-age children out of school due to the conversion of schools into shelters or military bases. Limited resources strain the education system, hindering access to education. However, efforts have been made to reopen closed schools, with success seen in Mosul, where over 380,000 children are back in school. Access to education varies depending on location, and there are disparities between boys and girls.

In 2013–2014, boys' enrollment was around five million, while girls' enrollment was around 4.2 million, with an 11% out-of-school rate for girls and less for boys. However, girls' enrollment has been increasing at a higher rate, particularly in Iraq Centre, across all education levels, suggesting progress towards achieving universal education for all. Despite the increase in enrollment rates for primary education, a significant number of children, particularly internally displaced children due to conflicts, remain out of the education system. Around 355,000 internally displaced children in Iraq, with 330,000 in Iraq Centre, are not receiving education. The strain on education resources is evident, and UNICEF emphasizes the need for increased expenditures to improve the quality of education. Challenges include inadequate school buildings, teacher shortages, lack of standardized curricula, textbooks, and technology. The growing student population poses a strain on teachers, impacting the quality of education. Libraries play a crucial role in promoting literacy but require restructuring within the education system to be more effective.

Culture

See main article: Culture of Iraq. Iraq's culture has a deep heritage that extends back in time to ancient Mesopotamian culture. Iraq has one of the longest written traditions in the world including architecture, literature, music, dance, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, stonemasonry and metalworking. The culture of Iraq or Mesopotamia is one of the world's oldest cultural histories and is considered one of the most influential cultures in the world.

Mesopotamian legacy went on to influence and shape the civilizations of the Old World in different ways such as inventing writing system, mathematics, time, calendar, astrology and the law code. Iraq is home to diverse ethnic groups that have each contributed in different ways to the country's long and rich heritage. The country is known for its poets, architects, painters and sculptors, who are among the best in the region, some of them being world-class. Iraq is known for producing fine handicrafts, including rugs and carpets.

Art

See main article: Art of Mesopotamia and Iraqi art. There were several interconnected traditions of art in ancient Iraq. The Abbasid Dynasty developed in the Abbasid Caliphate between 750 and 945, primarily in its heartland of Mesopotamia. The Abbasids were influenced mainly by Mesopotamian art traditions and later influenced Persian as well as Central Asian styles. Between the 8th and 13th centuries during the Abbasid period, pottery achieved a high level of sophistication, calligraphy began to be used to decorate the surface of decorative objects and illuminated manuscripts, particularly Q'ranic texts became more complex and stylised. Iraq's first art school was established during this period, allowing artisans and crafts to flourish.^[229]

At the height of the Abbasid period, in the late 12th century, a stylistic movement of manuscript illustration and calligraphy emerged. Now known as the Baghdad School, this movement of Islamic art was characterised by representations of everyday life and the use of highly expressive faces rather than the stereotypical characters that had been used in the past.^[230]

Architecture

See main article: Architecture of Iraq. The architecture of Iraq has a long history, encompassing several distinct cultures and spanning a period from the 10th millennium BC and features both the Mesopotamian and Abbasid architecture. Baghdad and Mosul have plethora of cultural and heritage buildings. There are numerous historic mosques in Baghdad and Basra, old churches in Mosul and synagogues in Baghdad. Modern prominent architects include Zaha Hadid, Basil Bayati, Rifat Chadirji and Hisham N. Ashkouri among others.^[231]

Important cultural institutions in the capital include the Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra – rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the occupation of Iraq but have since returned to normal.^[232] The National Theatre of Iraq was looted during the 2003 invasion, but efforts are underway to restore it. The live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 cinemas were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions.

Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the Academy of Music, Institute of Fine Arts and the Music and Ballet school Baghdad. Baghdad also features a number of museums including the National Museum of Iraq – which houses the world's largest and finest collection of artefacts and relics of Ancient Iraqi civilisations; some of which were stolen during the Occupation of Iraq. On 2021, it was announced that Iraq had reclaimed about 17,000 looted artifacts, which was considered to be the biggest repatriation.^[233]

The capital, Ninus or Nineveh, was taken by the Medes under Cyaxares, and some 200 years after Xenophon passed over its site, then mere mounds of earth. It remained buried until 1845, when Botta and Layard discovered the ruins of the Assyrian cities. The principal remains are those of Khorsabad, 10order=flipNaNorder=flip N.E. of Mosul; of Nimroud, supposed to be the ancient Calah; and of Kouyunjik, in all probability the ancient Nineveh. In these cities are found fragments of several great buildings which seem to have been palace-temples. They were constructed chiefly of sun-dried bricks, and all that remains of them is the lower part of the walls, decorated with sculpture and paintings, portions of the pavements, a few indications of the elevation, and some works connected with the drainage.

Literature

See main article: Akkadian literature, Sumerian literature and Iraqi literature. The literature in Iraq is often referred to as "Mesopotamian literature" due to the flourishing of various civilisations as a result of the mixture of these cultures and has been called Mesopotamian or Babylonian literature in allusion to the geographical territory that such cultures occupied in the Middle East between the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.^[234] The Sumerian literature was unique because it does not belong to any known linguistic root. Its appearance began with symbols of the things denoting it, then it turned with time to the cuneiform line on tablets. The literature during this time were mainly about mythical and epic texts dealing with creation issues, the emergence of the world, the gods, descriptions of the heavens, and the lives of heroes in the wars that broke out between the nomads and the urbanites. They also deal with religious teachings, moral advice, astrology, legislation, and history. One of which was the Epic of Gilgamesh, which is regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature.^[235]

During the Abbasid Caliphate, the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, which was a public academy and intellectual center, hosted numerous scholars and writers. A number of stories in One Thousand and One Nights feature famous Abbasid figures.^[236] Iraq has various medieval poets, most remarkably Hariri of Basra, Mutanabbi, Abu Nuwas, and Al-Jahiz. In modern times, various languages are used in Iraqi literature including Arabic, Neo-Aramaic, Kurdish and Turkish, although the Arabic literature remains the most influential literature. Notably poets include Jawahiri, Safa Khulusi and Dunya Mikhail.

Music

See main article: Music of Iraq.

Iraq is known primarily for its rich maqam heritage which has been passed down orally by the masters of the maqam in an unbroken chain of transmission leading up to the present. The Iraqi maqam is considered to be the most noble and perfect form of maqam. Al-maqam al-Iraqi is the collection of sung poems written either in one of the sixteen meters of classical Arabic or in Iraqi dialect (Zuhayri).^[237] This form of art is recognised by UNESCO as "an intangible heritage of humanity".^[238]

Early in the 20th century, many of the most prominent musicians in Iraq were Jewish.^[239] In 1936, Iraq Radio was established with an ensemble made up entirely of Jews, with the exception of the percussion player. At the nightclubs of Baghdad, ensembles consisted of oud, qanun and two percussionists, while the same format with a ney and cello were used on the radio.

The most famous singer of the 1930s–1940s was perhaps Salima Pasha (later Salima Murad).^[240] The respect and adoration for Pasha were unusual at the time since public performance by women was considered shameful. The most famous early composer from Iraq was Ezra Aharon, an oud player, while the most prominent instrumentalist was Yusuf Za'arur. Za'arus formed the official ensemble for the Iraqi radio station and were responsible for introducing the cello and ney into the traditional ensemble.

Media

See main article: Media of Iraq and Television in Iraq.

Iraq was home to the second television station in the Middle East, which began during the 1950s. As part of a plan to help Iraq modernise, English telecommunications company Pye Limited built and commissioned a television broadcast station in the capital city of Baghdad.^[241]

After the end of the full state control in 2003, there were a period of significant growth in the broadcast media in Iraq.^[242] By mid-2003, according to a BBC report, there were 20 radio stations from 0.15 to 17 television stations owned by Iraqis, and 200 Iraqi newspapers owned and operated.

Iraqi media expert and author of a number of reports on this subject, Ibrahim Al Marashi, identifies four stages of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 where they had been taking the steps that have significant effects on the way for the later of the Iraqi media since then. Stages are: pre-invasion preparation, and the war and the actual choice of targets, the first post-war period, and a growing insurgency and hand over power to the Iraqi Interim Government (IIG) and Prime Minister Iyad Allawi.^[243]

Cuisine

See main article: Iraqi cuisine.

Iraqi cuisine can be traced back some 10,000 years – to the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Ancient Persians.^[244] Tablets found in ancient ruins in Iraq show recipes prepared in the temples during religious festivals – the first cookbooks in the world. Ancient Iraq, or Mesopotamia, was home to many sophisticated and highly advanced civilisations, in all fields of knowledge – including the culinary arts. However, it was in the medieval era when Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate that the Iraqi kitchen reached its zenith. Today the cuisine of Iraq reflects this rich inheritance as well as strong influences from the culinary traditions of neighbouring Turkey, Iran and the Greater Syria area.

Some characteristic ingredients of Iraqi cuisine include – vegetables such as aubergine, tomato, okra, onion, potato, courgette, garlic, peppers and chilli, cereals such as rice, bulgur wheat and barley, pulses and legumes such as lentils, chickpeas and cannellini, fruits such as dates, raisins, apricots, figs, grapes, melon, pomegranate and citrus fruits, especially lemon and lime.

Similarly with other countries of Western Asia, chicken and especially lamb are the favourite meats. Most dishes are served with rice – usually Basmati, grown in the marshes of southern Iraq. Bulgur wheat is used in many dishes, having been a staple in the country since the days of the Ancient Assyrians.

Sport

See main article: Sport in Iraq.

Football is the most popular sport in Iraq. Basketball, swimming, weightlifting, bodybuilding, boxing, kick boxing and tennis are also popular sports.

The Iraq Football Association is the governing body of football in Iraq, controlling the Iraq national football team and the Iraq Stars League. It was founded in 1948, and has been a member of FIFA since 1950 and the Asian Football Confederation since 1971. Iraq were champions of the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, and they participated in the 1986 FIFA World Cup and the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup.

See also

• Outline of Iraq
• Lake Felaw

Bibliography

• Encyclopedia: ʿErāq-E ʿAjam(ī) . Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 5 . 538 . Bosworth . C. E. . C. E. Bosworth . 1998 .
• Shadid, Anthony 2005. Night Draws Near. Henry Holt and Co., NY, US. .
• Hanna Batatu, "The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq", Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.
• Charles Glass, "The Northern Front: A Wartime Diary"' Saqi Books, London, 2004.
• A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format).
• By Desert Ways to Baghdad, by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins) With illustrations and a map, 1908 (1909 ed.) (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format).
• Benjamin Busch, "'Today is Better than Tomorrow'. A Marine returns to a divided Iraq", Harper's Magazine, October 2014, pp. 29–44.
• Global Arms Exports to Iraq 1960–1990, Rand Research report
• Book: Lyman, Robert . Campaign . Iraq 1941: The Battles for Basra, Habbaniya, Fallujah and Baghdad . Osprey . Oxford . 2006 . 1-84176-991-6.
• Book: Polk, William Roe. 2005. Understanding Iraq. I.B. Tauris. 978-0-85771-764-1.
• Book: Simons, Geoff. 1996. Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam. St. Martin's Press. 978-0-312-16052-4.

Further reading

• Web site: Iraqi Constitution. Ministry of Interior – General Directorate For Nationality. 18 February 2013. 30 January 2006. . dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20161128152712/http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf. 28 November 2016.
• Book: Tripp, Charles R. H.. Charles R. H. Tripp. A History of Iraq . Cambridge University Press. 2002. 978-0-521-87823-4.

External links

Government

• Ur Portal – gateway to government sites
• Presidency – official website of the president of Iraq
• Prime Minister – official website of the prime minister of Iraq
• Statistics – Official website of Central Statistical Organization

History

• "History" – Iraqi History at Embassy of the Republic of Iraq in Washington

Maps

Notes and References

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