Training and development explained

Training and development involves improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them.^[1] Training may be viewed as being related to immediate changes in effectiveness via organized instruction, while development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee goals. While training and development technically have differing definitions, the terms are often used interchangeably. Training and development have historically been topics within adult education and applied psychology, but have within the last two decades become closely associated with human resources management, talent management, human resources development, instructional design, human factors, and knowledge management.

Skills training has taken on varying organizational forms across industrialized economies.^[2] Germany has an elaborate vocational training system, whereas the United States and the United Kingdom are considered to generally have weak ones.

History

Aspects of training and development have been linked to ancient civilizations around the world.^[3] Early training-related articles appeared in journals marketed to enslavers in the Antebellum South^[4] and training approaches and philosophies were discussed extensively by Booker T. Washington.^[5] Early academic publishing related to training included a 1918 article in the Journal of Applied Psychology, which explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists.^[6]

By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research since it was historically rooted in trial-and-error intervention research, and new training methods were developed, such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing.^[7] The scope of training and development also expanded to include cross-cultural training, a focus on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new organization development literature to frame training programs.

The 1980s focused on how employees received and implemented training programs, and encouraged the collection of data for evaluation purposes, particularly management training programs.^[8] The development piece of training and development became increasingly popular in the 90s, with employees more frequently being influenced by the concept of lifelong learning.^[9] It was in this decade that research revealing the impact and importance of fostering a training and development-positive culture was first conducted.

The 21st century brought more research in topics such as team-training, such as cross-training, which emphasizes training in coworkers' responsibilities.^[10]

Training practice and methods

Training and development encompass three main activities: training, education, and development.^{[11] [12] [13]} Differing levels and types of development may be used depending on the roles of employees in an organisation.^[14]

The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers, and line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The clients of training and development are business planners, while the participants are those who undergo the processes. The facilitators are human resource management staff and the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the others'.^[15]

Since the 2000s, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities.^[16] These active learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning,^[17] error management training,^[18] guided exploration,^[19] and mastery training.^[16] Typical projects in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new employee orientation, professional skills training, technical/job training, customer-service training, sales-and-marketing training, and health-and-safety training. Training is particularly critical in high-reliability organizations, which rely on high safety standards to prevent catastrophic damage to employees, equipment, or the environment (e.g. nuclear power plants and operating rooms).^[20]

The instructional systems design approach (often referred to as the ADDIE model) is often used for designing learning programs and used for instructional design, or the process of designing, developing, and delivering learning content. There are 5 phases in the ADDIE model:^[21]

1. Needs assessment: problem identification. training needs analysis, determination of audience determined, identification of stakeholder's needs and required resources
2. Program design: mapping of learning intervention/implementation outline and evaluation methods
3. Program development: delivery method, production of learning outcomes, quality evaluation of learning outcome, development of communication strategy, required technology, and assessment and evaluation tools
4. Training delivery and implementation: participation in side-programs, training delivery, learning participation, and evaluation of business
5. Evaluation of training: formal evaluation, including the evaluation of learning and potential points of improvement

Many different training methods exist today, including both on- and off-the-job methods. Other training methods may include:

• Apprenticeship training: training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience both on and off the job in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work^[22]
• Co-operative programs and internship programs: training programs that combine practical, on-the-job experience with formal education, and are usually offered at colleges and universities^[23]
• Classroom instruction: information is presented in lectures, demonstrations, films, and videotapes or through computer instruction
• Self-directed learning: individuals work at their own pace during programmed instruction, which may include books, manuals, or computers that break down subject-matter content into highly-organized logical sequences that demand a continuous response on the trainee's part.^[24] It often includes the use of computer and/or online resources.^[25]
• Audiovisual: methods used to teach the skills and procedures required for a number of jobs through audiovisual means
• Simulation: used when it is not practical or safe to train people on the actual equipment or within the actual work environment

There is significant importance in training as it prepares employees for higher job responsibilities, shows employees they are valued, improves IT and computer processes, and tests the efficiency of new performance management systems. However, some believe training wastes time and money because, in certain cases, real life experience may be better than education, and organizations want to spend less, not more.^[26]

Needs assessments

Needs assessments, especially when the training is being conducted on a large-scale, are frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how it should be trained, and how extensively.^[27] Needs assessments in the training and development context often reveal employee and management-specific skills to develop (e.g. for new employees), organizational-wide problems to address (e.g. performance issues), adaptations needed to suit changing environments (e.g. new technology), or employee development needs (e.g. career planning). The needs assessment can predict the degree of effectiveness of training and development programs and how closely the needs were met, the execution of the training (i.e. how effective the trainer was), and trainee characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive abilities).^[28] Training effectiveness is typically done on an individual or team-level, with few studies investigating the impacts on organizations.

Principles

Aik and Tway (2006) estimated that only 20–30% of training given to employees are used within the next month.^[29] To mitigate the issue, they recommended some general principles to follow to increase the employees' desire to take part in the program. These include:

• improving self-efficacy, which increases the learner's personal belief that they can fully comprehend the teachings^[29]
• maintaining a positive attitude, as an uncooperative attitude towards learning could hinder the individual's capability to grasp the knowledge being provided^[29]
• increasing competence, which is the ability for an individual to make good decisions efficiently^[29]
• providing external motivators, such as a reward for the completion of the training or an extrinsic goal to follow^[29]

Motivation

Motivation is an internal process that influences an employee's behavior and willingness to achieve organizational goals.^[30] Creating a motivational environment within an organization can help employees achieve their highest level of productivity, and can create an engaged workforce that enhances individual and organizational performance.^[31] The model for motivation is represented by motivators separated into two different categories:

• Intrinsic factors, which represent the internal factors of an individual, such as the, achievement recognition, responsibility, opportunity for meaningful work, involvement in decision making, and importance within the organization
• Extrinsic factors, which are factors external to the individual, such as job security, salary, benefits, work conditions, and vacations

Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators associate with employee performance in the workplace. A company's techniques to motivate employees may change over time depending on the current dynamics of the workplace.

Feedback

Traditional constructive feedback, also known as weakness-based feedback, can often be viewed as malicious from the employees’ perspective. When interpreted negatively, employees lose motivation on the job, affecting their production level.^[32]

Reinforcement is another principle of employee training and development. Studies have shown that reinforcement directly influences employee learning, which is highly correlated with performance after training. Reinforcement-based training emphasizes the importance of communication between managers and trainees in the workplace. The more the training environment can be a positive, nurturing experience, the faster attendees are apt to learn.^[33]

Benefits

The benefits of the training and development of employees include:

• increased productivity and performance in the workplace
• uniformity of work processes
• skills and team development^[34]
• reduced supervision and wastage
• a decrease in safety-related accidents
• improved organizational structure, designs and morale
• better knowledge of policies and organization's goals
• improved customer valuation^[35]
• Enhancements in public service motivation among public employees^[36]

However, training and development may lead to adverse outcomes if it is not strategic and goal-oriented.^[37] Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the long-term outcomes of training investments;^[38] and in the public sector, managers often hold conservative views about the effectiveness of training.

Barriers and access to training

Training and development are crucial to organizational performance, employee career advancement and engagement.^[39]

Disparities in training can be caused by several factors, including societal norms and cultural biases that significantly impact the distribution of training opportunities. Stereotypes and implicit biases can undermine the confidence and performance of minority groups to seek out training, affecting their career development.^[40]

The impact of excluding or limiting a person’s access to training and development opportunities can affect both the individual and the organization.

• Disparities in training opportunities can adversely affect individuals from underrepresented groups, leading to slower career progression, reduced employee engagement, and limited professional growth.^[41] Individuals may experience lower self-esteem and decreased motivation due to perceived or actual access to development opportunities. For example, if a leadership training program does not have minority representation, individuals may lack the confidence to “break the glass ceiling” and seek out the opportunity for themselves.^[42]
• When training opportunities are not equitably distributed, organizations may have reduced diversity in leadership and decision-making, which may stifle innovation and hinder organizational performance. Failure to address these disparities can lead to higher turnover rates and lower employee morale.^[43]

Management teams that are not diverse can be self-replicating as senior leaders’ demographic characteristics significantly impact the types of programs, policies and practices implemented in the organisation – i.e. there are more likely to be diversity programs if the management team is also diverse.^[44]

To address these disparities, organizations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. These may include:

• implementing inclusive policies for addressing disparities: organizations should establish diversity and inclusion programs that specifically target training and development opportunities for underrepresented groups, which should focus on opportunities for future managers at the bottom of the hierarchy, as advancement to lower-level and middle-level positions is crucial for promotion to upper-level management.^[45] These policies can help ensure employees have equal access to career advancement resources and can increase the implementation of mechanisms for reporting discrimination or advancement barriers.^[46] Some efforts to support diversity and exclusion commitments in workplaces may be enshrined in law, such as the New Zealand Public Service Act 2020.^[47]
• Developing mentorship and sponsorship programs: these programs can support underrepresented groups by providing them with guidance, networking opportunities, and advocacy within the organisation. Creating supportive networks for minority and gender groups can provide safe spaces for people identifying as minorities to develop programs that are suited to them and to provide a united voice to report ongoing discrimination.^[48]
• Using data to track and address disparities in training opportunities: this may include censuses^[49] or regular pulse surveys or records of learning that are linked to a person’s self-identified attributes.

Occupation

The Occupational Information Network cites training and development specialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years. Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers, industrial-organizational psychologists, and organization development consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the organization's needs by using various training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs.^[50]

See also

• Adult education
• Andragogy
• Microtraining

Further reading

• Book: Gower Handbook of Training and Development. Anthony Landale. Gower Publishing, Ltd.. 1999. 9780566081224.
• Book: Managing Human Resources in Small & Mid-Sized Companies. Diane Arthur. Training and Development. AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn. 1995. 9780814473115.
• Book: The HR Answer Book. Shawn A. Smith. Rebecca A. Mazin. amp. Training and Development. AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn. 2004. 9780814472231. registration. https://archive.org/details/hranswerbookindi00smit. registration.
• Harvard Business Review. October 2005. 83. 10. 62 - 70. Growing talent as if your business depended on it. Cohn JM, Khurana R, Reeves L . 16250625.
• Thelen, Kathleen. 2004. How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan. Cambridge University Press.

Notes and References

1. Aguinis. Herman. Kraiger. Kurt. January 2009. Benefits of Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society. Annual Review of Psychology. 60. 1. 451–474. 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505. 18976113. 45609735 . 0066-4308.
2. Book: Thelen, Kathleen . How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan . 2004 . Cambridge University Press . 978-0-521-54674-4 . en.
3. Alagaraja. Meera. Dooley. Larry M.. March 2003. Origins and Historical Influences on Human Resource Development: A Global Perspective. Human Resource Development Review. en. 2. 1. 82–96. 10.1177/1534484303251170. 143353567 . 1534-4843.
4. Phillips. Lisa. 2013-03-08. David R. Roediger and Esch Elizabeth. The Production of Difference. Race and the Management of Labor in US History. Oxford University Press, Oxford [etc.]2012. x, 286 pp. Ill. £22.50.. International Review of Social History. 58. 1. 129–131. 10.1017/s0020859013000059. 144977591 . 0020-8590. free.
5. Book: Washington, Booker, T.. Up From Slavery.
6. Bell. Bradford S.. Tannenbaum. Scott I.. Ford. J. Kevin. Noe. Raymond A.. Kraiger. Kurt. 2017. 100 years of training and development research: What we know and where we should go.. Journal of Applied Psychology. 102. 3. 305–323. 10.1037/apl0000142. 28125262. 1939-1854. 1813/74878. 26505012. free.
7. Campbell. J P. January 1971. Personnel Training and Development. Annual Review of Psychology. 22. 1. 565–602. 10.1146/annurev.ps.22.020171.003025. 0066-4308.
8. Burke. Michael J.. Day. Russell R.. 1986. A cumulative study of the effectiveness of managerial training.. Journal of Applied Psychology. 71. 2. 232–245. 10.1037/0021-9010.71.2.232. 0021-9010.
9. Birdi. Kamal. Allan. Catriona. Warr. Peter. 1997. Correlates and perceived outcomes of 4 types of employee development activity.. Journal of Applied Psychology. 82. 6. 845–857. 10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.845. 9638086. 0021-9010.
10. Marks . Michelle A. . Sabella . Mark J. . Burke . C. Shawn . Zaccaro . Stephen J. . 2002 . The impact of cross-training on team effectiveness. . Journal of Applied Psychology . 87 . 1 . 3–13 . 10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.3 . 0021-9010 . 11916213.
11. Book: Learning and Development. Rosemary Harrison. 2005. CIPD Publishing. 9781843980506. 5.
12. Book: Management. Patrick J. Montana . Bruce H. Charnov . amp . 225. Training and Development. Barron Educationally Series. 2000. 9780764112768.
13. Book: Training and Development in Ireland. Thomas N. Garavan . Pat Costine . Noreen Heraty . amp . Cengage Learning EMEA. 1995. 1. Training and Development: Concepts, Attitudes, and Issues. 9781872853925.
14. Book: Peacock . Melanie . Understanding Human Resources Management . Steward . Eileen B. . Belcourt . Monica . Alexis Hood . 2020 . 978-0-17-679806-2 . 185.
15. Book: Human Resource Management. Derek Torrington . Laura Hall . Stephen Taylor . amp . 363. Pearson Education. 2004. 9780273687139.
16. Bell. Bradford S.. Kozlowski. Steve W. J.. 2008. Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability.. Journal of Applied Psychology. 93. 2. 296–316. 10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.296. 18361633. 1939-1854. 1813/75102. free.
17. McDaniel. Mark A.. Schlager. Mark S.. June 1990. Discovery Learning and Transfer of Problem-Solving Skills. Cognition and Instruction. 7. 2. 129–159. 10.1207/s1532690xci0702_3. 0737-0008.
18. Keith. Nina. Frese. Michael. 2005. Self-Regulation in Error Management Training: Emotion Control and Metacognition as Mediators of Performance Effects.. Journal of Applied Psychology. 90. 4. 677–691. 10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.677. 16060786. 1939-1854.
19. Wood. Robert. Kakebeeke. Bastiaan. Debowski. Shelda. Frese. Michael. April 2000. The Impact of Enactive Exploration on Intrinsic Motivation, Strategy, and Performance in Electronic Search. Applied Psychology. 49. 2. 263–283. 10.1111/1464-0597.00014. 0269-994X.
20. Roberts. Karlene H.. July 1990. Managing High Reliability Organizations. California Management Review. 32. 4. 101–113. 10.2307/41166631. 0008-1256. 41166631. 154274951.
21. Web site: 2020-11-02. The ADDIE Model for Instructional Design Explained. 2020-11-29. AIHR Digital. en-US.
22. Book: Peacock. Steward. Belcourt. Melanie. Eileen B.. Monica. Understanding Human Resources Management. Alexis Hood. 2020. 978-0-17-679806-2. 189.
23. Book: Peacock. Steward. Belcourt. Melanie. Eileen B.. Monica. Understanding Human Resources Management. Alexis Hood. 2020. 978-0-17-679806-2. 190.
24. Book: Peacock. Steward. Belcourt. Melanie. Eileen B.. Monica. Understanding Human Resources Management. Alexis Hood. 2020. 978-0-17-679806-2. 191.
25. Book: Peacock . Melanie . Understanding Human Resources Management . Steward . Eileen B. . Belcourt . Monica . Alexis Hood . 2020 . 978-0-17-679806-2 . 192.
26. Web site: Say. My. Why Your Employee Training Is A Waste Of Time And Money -- And What To Do About It. 2020-11-29. Forbes. en.
27. Brown . Judith . December 2002 . Training Needs Assessment: A Must for Developing an Effective Training Program . Public Personnel Management . 31 . 4 . 569–578 . 10.1177/009102600203100412 . 0091-0260 . 154852480.
28. Tannenbaum . S I . Yukl . G . January 1992 . Training and Development in Work Organizations . . 43 . 1 . 399–441 . 10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.002151.
29. Aik. Chong Tek. Tway. Duane C.. March 2006. Elements and principles of training as a performance improvement solution. Performance Improvement. 45. 3. 28–32. 10.1002/pfi.2006.4930450307. 1090-8811.
30. Book: Stack, Laura. Managing employee performance : motivation, ability, and obstacles. 2013. Productivity Pro. 978-1-62723-025-4. [Highlands Ranch, CO]. 852507794.
31. Book: MacRae, Ian (Psychologist). Motivation and performance : a guide to motivating a diverse workforce. Furnham, Adrian.. 3 February 2017. 978-0-7494-7814-8. London. 966315014.
32. Aguinis. Herman. Gottfredson. Ryan K.. Joo. Harry. 2012-03-01. Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach. Business Horizons. en. 55. 2. 105–111. 10.1016/j.bushor.2011.10.004. 154034097 . 0007-6813.
33. Nelson, Bob. “A Dose of Positive Reinforcement Can Go a Long Way.” T+D, vol. 67, no. 3, Mar. 2013, pp. 40–44. EBSCOhost, library.macewan.ca/full-record/bth/85852296.
34. Book: Salas . Eduardo . Improving patient safety through teamwork and team training . Frush . Karen . 24 August 2012 . Salas, Eduardo, Frush, Karen . 9780199875542 . New York . 811142213.
35. Web site: The Importance of Training Employees: 11 Benefits . 2020-11-29 . Indeed Career Guide . en-us.
36. Chen . Chung-An . Hsieh . Chih-Wei . Chen . Don-Yun . March 2021 . Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design . Review of Public Personnel Administration . en . 41 . 1 . 194–215 . 10.1177/0734371X19872244 . 10356/149992 . 0734-371X. free .
37. Book: Rebecca, Page-Tickell. Learning and development. 9780749469894. 1st. London. 883248797. 3 July 2014.
38. Quratulain . Samina . Khan . Abdul Karim . Sabharwal . Meghna . Javed . Basharat . June 2021 . Effect of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs on Training Implementation Behaviors: Testing the Moderating Effect of Organizational Climate . Review of Public Personnel Administration . en . 41 . 2 . 250–273 . 10.1177/0734371X19876676 . 0734-371X.
39. Hassett . MP . The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce . Public Personal Management . 2022 . 51 . 3 . 380–404 . 10.1177/00910260221098189 .
40. Lee . HH . Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination . Review of Public and Personnel Administration . 2021 . 41 . 2 . 274–293 . 10.1177/0734371X19880578 .
41. Hassett . MP . The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce . Public Personal Management . 2022 . 51 . 3 . 380–404 . 10.1177/00910260221098189 .
42. Eddy . S . Ng . AG . The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. . Human Resource Management Journal . 2017 . 27 . 133–151 . 10.1111/1748-8583.12135 .
43. Chen . CA . Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design . American Society for Public Administration . 2021 . 41 . 194–215 . 10.1177/0734371X19872244 . 10356/149992 . free .
44. Eddy . S . Ng . AG . The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management . Human Resource Management Journal . 2017 . 27 . 133–151 . 10.1111/1748-8583.12135 .
45. Eddy . S . Ng . AG . The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. . Human Resource Management Journal . 2017 . 27 . 133–151 . 10.1111/1748-8583.12135 .
46. Lee . HH . Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination. . Review of Public and Personnel AdministrationReview of Public and Personnel Administration . 2021 . 41 . 2 . 274–293 . 10.1177/0734371X19880578 .
47. Web site: New Zealand Public Service Act 2020 . Legislation New Zealand . 17 September 2024.
48. Lee . HH . Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination . Review of Public and Personnel Administration . 2021 . 41 . 2 . 274–293 . 10.1177/0734371X19880578 .
49. Web site: Improving diversity and inclusion in the Public Service . Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission . 17 September 2024.
50. Web site: 13-1151.00 - Training and Development Specialists . 2019-03-01 . www.onetonline.org.