African French Explained

African French (fr|français africain) is the generic name of the varieties of the French language spoken by an estimated 167 million people in Africa in 2023 or 51% of the French-speaking population of the world^{[4] [5] [6]} spread across 34 countries and territories.^[7] This includes those who speak French as a first or second language in these 34 African countries and territories (some of which are not Francophone, but merely non-Francophone members or observers of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie or OIF), but it does not include French speakers living in other African countries. Africa is thus the continent with the most French speakers in the world,^{[8] [9]} and African French speakers now form a large and integral part of the Francophonie.

In Africa, French is often spoken as a second language alongside the Indigenous ones, but in a small number of urban areas (in particular in Central Africa and in the ports located on the Gulf of Guinea) it has become a first language, such as in the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast,^[10] in the urban areas of Douala, Yaoundé in Cameroon, in Libreville, Gabon, and Antananarivo^[11]

In some countries, though not having official de jure status, it is a first language among some social classes of the population, such as in Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Mauritania, where French is a first language among the upper classes along with Arabic (many people in the upper classes are simultaneous bilinguals in Arabic/French), but only a second language among the general population.^[12]

In each of the Francophone African countries, French is spoken with local variations in pronunciation and vocabulary.

List of countries in Africa by French proficiency

French proficiency in African countries according to the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF).^{[13] [14]}

Countries	Total population	French speaking population	Percentage of the population that speaks French	Year
	45,350,141	14,903,789	32.86%	2022
	12,784,728	4,306,099	33.68%	2022
	22,102,838	5,403,610	24.45%	2022
	12,624,845	1,073,506	8.50%	2022
	567,676	61,461	10.83%	2022
	27,911,544	11,490,652	41.17%	2022
	5,016,678	1,435,061	28.61%	2022
	17,413,574	2,249,023	12.92%	2022
	907,411	237,140	26.13%	2022
	5,797,801	3,518,464	60.69%	2022
	27,742,301	9,324,605	33.61%	2022
	1,016,098	508,049	50%	2022
	95,240,782	72,110,821	74%[15]	2022
	106,156,692	3,204,706	3.02%	2022
	1,496,673	432,705	28.91%	2022
	2,331,532	1,865,225	80%[16]	2023
	2,558,493	511,699	20.00%	2022
	32,395,454	273,795	0.85%	2022
	13,865,692	3,776,660	27.24%	2022
	2,063,361	317,351	15.38%	2022
	29,178,075	7,729,277	26.49%	2022
	21,473,776	3,702,660	17.24%	2022
	4,901,979	655,948	13.38%	2022
	1,274,720	926,053	72.65%	2022
	37,772,757	13,456,845	35.63%	2022
	33,089,463	98,822	0.30%	2022
	26,083,660	3,362,988	12.89%	2022
	13,600,466	792,815	5.83%	2022
	227,679	45,984	20.20%	2022
	17,653,669	4,640,365	26.29%	2022
	99,433	52,699	53.00%	2022
	8,680,832	3,554,266	40.94%	2022
	12,046,656	6,321,391	52.47%	2022

Varieties

There are many different varieties of African French, but they can be broadly grouped into five categories:^[17]

1. The French variety spoken in Central Africa and West Africa – spoken altogether by about 97 million people in 2018, as either a first or second language.
2. The French variety spoken by Berbers and Maghrebis in North-west Africa (see Maghreb French), which has about 33 million first and second language speakers in 2018.
3. The French variety spoken in the Comoro Islands (the Comoros and Mayotte) and Madagascar, which have 5.6 million first and second language speakers in 2018.
4. The French variety spoken by Creoles in the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius and Réunion) and Seychelles, which has around 1.75 million first and second language speakers in 2018. The French spoken in this region is not to be confused with the French-based creole languages, which are also spoken in the area.
5. The French variety spoken in Djibouti in the Horn of Africa, which has about 0.5 million first and second language speakers in 2018.

All the African French varieties differ from Standard French, both in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary, but the formal African French used in education, media and legal documents is based on standard French vocabulary.

In the colonial period, a vernacular form of creole French known as Petit nègre ("little negro") was also present in West Africa. The term has since, however, become a pejorative term for "poorly spoken" African French.

The difficulty linguists have in describing African French comes from variations, such as the "pure" language used by many African intellectuals and writers versus the mixtures between French and African languages. For this, the term "creolization" is used, often in a pejorative way, and especially in the areas where French is on the same level with one or more local languages. According to Gabriel Manessy, "The consequences of this concurrency may vary according to the social status of the speakers, to their occupations, to their degree of acculturation and thus to the level of their French knowledge."^[18]

Code-switching, or the alternation of languages within a single conversation, takes place in both DR Congo and Senegal, the former having four "national" languages – Ciluba, Kikongo, Lingala, and Swahili – which are in a permanent opposition to French. Code-switching has been studied since colonial times by different institutions of linguistics. One of these, located in Dakar, Senegal, already spoke of the creolization of French in 1968, naming the result "franlof": a mix of French and Wolof (the language most spoken in Senegal) which spreads by its use in urban areas and through schools, where teachers often speak Wolof in the classroom despite official instructions.^[19]

The omnipresence of local languages in Francophone African countries – along with insufficiencies in education – has given birth to a new linguistic concept: le petit français. Le petit français is the result of a superposition of the structure of a local language with a narrowed lexical knowledge of French. The specific structures, though very different, are juxtaposed, marking the beginning of the creolization process.

Français populaire africain

In the urban areas of Francophone Africa, another type of French has emerged: Français populaire africain ("Popular African French") or FPA. It is used in the entirety of Sub-Saharan Africa, but especially in cities such as Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire; Cotonou, Benin; Dakar, Senegal; Lomé, Togo; and Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. At its emergence, it was marginalized and associated with the ghetto; Angèle Bassolé-Ouedraogo describes the reaction of the scholars:

However, FPA has begun to emerge as a second language among the upper class. It has also become a symbol of social acceptance.

FPA can be seen as a progressive evolution of Ivorian French. After diffusing out of Ivory Coast, it became Africanized under the influence of young Africans (often students) and cinema, drama, and dance.

FPA has its own grammatical rules and lexicon. For example, "French: Il ou elle peut me tuer!" or "French: Il ou elle peut me dja!" can either mean "This person annoys me very much (literally he or she is annoying me to death)" or "I'm dying (out of love) for him/her" depending on the circumstances. "" signifies a feeling of exasperation (whereupon it actually means "he or she starts to appeal to me"), and friendship can be expressed with "French: c'est mon môgô sûr" or "French: c'est mon bramôgo."^[20]

FPA is mainly composed of metaphors and images taken from African languages. For example, the upper social class is called "French: les en-haut d'en-haut" (the above from above) or "French: les môgôs puissants" (the powerful môgôs).

Pronunciation

Pronunciation in the many varieties of African French can be quite varied. There are nonetheless some trends among African French speakers; for instance, tends to be pronounced as the historic alveolar trill of pre-20th Century French instead of the now standard uvular trill or 'guttural R.' The voiced velar fricative, the sound represented by Arabic: {{vr|غ in the Arabic word Arabic: مغرب Arabic: [[Maghreb|Ma'''gh'''rib]], is another common alternative. Pronunciation of the letters,, and may also vary, and intonation may differ from standard French.

Abidjan French

According to some estimates, French is spoken by 75 to 99 percent of Abidjan's population,^[21] either alone or alongside indigenous African languages. There are three sorts of French spoken in Abidjan. A formal French is spoken by the educated classes. Most of the population, however, speaks a colloquial form of French known as français de Treichville (after a working-class district of Abidjan) or français de Moussa (after a character in chronicles published by the magazine Ivoire Dimanche which are written in this colloquial Abidjan French). Finally, an Abidjan French slang called Nouchi has evolved from an ethnically neutral lingua franca among uneducated youth into a creole language with a distinct grammar.^[22] New words often appear in Nouchi and then make their way into colloquial Abidjan French after some time.^[23] As of 2012, a crowdsourced dictionary of Nouchi was being written using mobile phones.^[24]

Here are some examples of words used in the African French variety spoken in Abidjan (the spelling used here conforms to French orthography, except ô which is pronounced pronounced as /[ɔ]/):^[25]

• French: une go is a slang word meaning a girl or a girlfriend. It is a loanword either from the Mandinka language or from English ("girl"). It is also French hip-hop slang for a girl.^[26]
• French: un maquis is a colloquial word meaning a street-side eatery, a working-class restaurant serving African food. This word exists in standard French, but its meaning is "maquis shrubland", and by extension "guerrilla", see Maquis (World War II). It is not known exactly how this word came to mean street-side restaurant in Côte d'Ivoire.
• French: un bra-môgô is a slang word equivalent to "bloke" or "dude" in English. It is a loanword from the Mandinka language.
• French: chicotter is a word meaning to whip, to beat, or to chastise (children). It is a loanword from Portuguese where it meant "to whip (the black slaves)". It has now entered the formal language of the educated classes.
• French: le pia is a slang word meaning money. It comes perhaps from the standard French word French: pièce ("coin") or French: pierre ("stone"), or perhaps French: piastre (dollar, buck).

When speaking in a formal context, or when meeting French speakers from outside Côte d'Ivoire, Abidjan speakers would replace these local words with the French standard words French: une fille, French: un restaurant or French: une cantine, French: un copain, battre and l'argent respectively. Note that some local words are used across several African countries. For example, French: chicotter is attested not only in Côte d'Ivoire but also in Senegal, Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Chad, the Central African Republic, Benin, Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

As already mentioned, these local words range from slang to formal usage, and their use therefore varies depending on the context. In Abidjan, this is how the sentence "The girl stole my money." is constructed depending on the register:

• formal Abidjan French of the educated people: French: La fille m'a subtilisé mon argent.
• colloquial Abidjan French (French: français de Moussa

): French: Fille-là a prend mon l'argent. (in standard French, the grammatically correct sentence should be French: Cette fille (là) m'a pris de l'argent)

• Abidjan French slang (Nouchi): French: La go a momo mon pia. (French: Momo is an Abidjan slang word meaning "to steal")

Another unique, identifiable feature of Ivorian French is the use of the phrase n'avoir qu'à + infinitif which, translated into English, roughly means, to have only to + infinitive.^[27] The phrase is often used in linguistic contexts of expressing a wish or creating hypotheticals. This original Ivorian phrase is generally used across the Ivory Coast's population; children, uneducated adults, and educated adults all using the phrase relatively equally. Often in written speech, the phrase is written as Ils non cas essayer de voir rather than Ils n'ont qu'à essayer de voir.

Characteristics

Many characteristics of Ivorian/Abidjan French differ from "standard" French found in France. Many of the linguistic evolutions are from the influences of native African languages spoken within the Ivory Coast and make Abidjan French a distinct dialect of French.

Some of the major phonetic and phonological variations of Abidjan French, as compared to a more "typical" French, include substituting the nasal low vowel [ɑ̃] for a non-nasal [a], especially when the sound occurs at the beginning of a word, and some difficulty with the full production of the phonemes [ʒ] and [ʃ].^[28] There are also, to a certain degree, rhythmic speaking patterns in Ivorian French that are influenced by native languages.

Ivorian French is also unique in its grammatical differences present in spoken speech such as these:

• omission of articles in some contexts (tu veux poisson instead of the French tu veux du poisson)
• omission of prepositions in some contexts (Il parti Yamoussoukro rather than Il est parti à Yamoussoukro)
• interchangeable usage of indirect and direct objects (using lui instead of le and vice versa)
• more flexible grammatical formation

Algerian French

Without being an official language, French is frequently used in government, workplaces, and education. French is the default language for work in several sectors. In a 2007 study set in the city of Mostaganem, it was shown that French and Arabic were the two functional languages of banking. Technical work (accounting, financial analysis, management) is also frequently done in French. Documents, forms, and posters are often in both French and Arabic.

The usage of French among the Algerian population is different depending on social situations. One can find:

• direct borrowings, where the lexical unit is unchanged: surtout (particularly), voiture (car)
• integrated borrowings, where the lexical unit experiences phonetic transformation: gendarme (police force), cinéma (cinema)
• code switching, where another language is spoken in addition to French in a single oration (ex: Berber/French, Arabic/French)

Beninese French

French is the sole official language in Benin. In 2014, over 4 million Beninese citizens spoke French (around 40% of the population). Fongbe is the other widely spoken language of Benin. It is natural to hear both languages blending, either through loan words or code-switching.

Few academic sources exist surrounding the particularisms of Beninese French. Nevertheless, it is evident that Beninese French has adapted the meanings of several French terms over time, such as: seconder (to have relations with a second woman, from the French second - second), doigter (to show the way, from the French doigt - finger).

Burkinabe French

French is the language of administration, education, and business in Burkina Faso and was the de jure official language until a constitutional change in 2024. While spoken fluently only by about a quarter of the population, French has progressively become a native language among urban populations since the late 20th century, notably in the cities of Ouagadougou, Bobo-Dioulasso, and Banfora. By 2010, about 10% of Ouagadougou residents spoke French as their first language.^[29]

Linguists have observed the development of a local vernacular of French in the country called français populaire burkinabè which is influenced by local languages such as Mooré and is used as a lingua franca in commerce.^[30] It is largely used as a spoken language whereas speakers continue to use standard French as the written language.^[31]

Kinshasa French

With more than 11 million inhabitants, Kinshasa is the largest Francophone city in the world, surpassing Paris in population. It is the capital of the most populous francophone country in the world, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where an estimated 43 million people (51% of the total population) can speak French (essentially as a second language).^{[32] [33]} Contrary to Abidjan where French is the first language of a large part of the population, in Kinshasa French is only a second language, and its status of lingua franca is shared with Lingala. Kinshasa French also differs from other African French variants, for it has some Belgian French influences, due to colonization. People of different African mother tongues living in Kinshasa usually speak Lingala to communicate with each other in the street, but French is the language of businesses, administrations, schools, newspapers and televisions. French is also the predominant written language.

Due to its widespread presence in Kinshasa, French has become a local language with its own pronunciation and some local words borrowed for the most part from Lingala. Depending on their social status, some people may mix French and Lingala, or code switch between the two depending on the context. Here are examples of words particular to Kinshasa French. As in Abidjan, there exist various registers and the most educated people may frown upon the use of slangish/Lingala terms.

• French: cadavéré means broken, worn out, exhausted, or dead. It is a neologism on the standard French word French: cadavre whose meaning in standard French is "corpse". The word French: cadavéré has now spread to other African countries due to the popularity of Congolese music in Africa.
• French: makasi means strong, resistant. It is a loanword from Lingala.
• French: anti-nuit are sunglasses worn by partiers at night. It is a word coined locally and whose literal meaning in standard French is "anti-night". It is one of the many Kinshasa slang words related to nightlife and partying. A reveler is known locally as French: un ambianceur, from standard French French: ambiance which means atmosphere.
• French: casser le bic, literally "to break the Bic", means to stop going to school. is colloquially used to refer to a ballpoint pen in Belgian French and Kinshasa French, but not in standard French.
• French: merci mingi means "thank you very much". It comes from standard French French: merci ("thank you") and Lingala Lingala: mingi ("a lot").
• French: un zibolateur is a bottle opener. It comes from the Lingala verb Lingala: kozibola which means "to open something that is blocked up or bottled", to which was added the standard French suffix French: -ateur.
• French: un tétanos is a rickety old taxi. In standard French French: tétanos means "tetanus".
• French: moyen tê vraiment means "absolutely impossible". It comes from French: moyen tê ("there's no way"), itself made up of standard French French: moyen ("way") and Lingala Lingala: tê ("not", "no"), to which was added standard French French: vraiment ("really").
• French: avoir un bureau means to have a mistress. French: Il a deux bureaux doesn't mean "He has two offices", but "He has two mistresses".
• French: [[Article 15 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)|article 15]] means "fend for yourself" or "find what you need by yourself".
• French: ça ne dérange pas means "thank you" or "you are welcome". When it means "thank you", it can offend some French speakers who are not aware of its special meaning in Kinshasa. For example, if one offers a present to a person, they will often reply French: ça ne dérange pas. In standard French, it means "I don't mind".
• French: quatre-vingt-et-un is the way Kinois say 81, French: quatre-vingt-un in Europe.
• French: compliquer quelqu'un, literally to make things "complicated" or difficult for someone. It can be anyone: French: Elle me complique, "She is giving me a tough time".
• French: une tracasserie is something someone does to make another person's life harder, and often refers to policemen or soldiers. A fine is often called a French: tracasserie, especially because the policemen in Kinshasa usually ask for an unpayable sum of money that requires extensive bargaining.

Characteristics

There are many linguistic differences that occur in Kinshasa French that make it a distinct dialect of French. Similarly to many other African dialects of French, many of the linguistic aspects are influenced, either directly or indirectly, by the linguistics of the local African languages. It is also essential to note that grammatical differences between local Congolese languages and the French language, such as the lack of gendered nouns in the former, result in linguistic changes when speakers of the former speak French.^[34]

Here are some of the phonetic characteristics of Kinshasa French:^[35]

• the posteriorization of anterior labial vowels in French, more specifically, the posteriorization of the common French phoneme [ɥ] for [u] (ex: pronunciation of the French word cuisine [kɥizin] as couwisine [kuwizin])
• the delabialization of the phoneme [y] for the phoneme [i] (ex: pronunciation of the French term bureau [byʁo] as biro [biʁo])
• the vocalic opening of the French phoneme [œ] creating, instead, the phoneme [ɛ] (ex: pronunciation of the French word acteur [aktœʁ] as actère [aktɛʁ])
• in some cases, the denasalization of French vowels (ex: pronunciation of the French term bande [bɑ̃d] as ba-nde [band])
• the mid-nasalization of occlusive consonants that follow the nasals [n] and [m] (ex: in relationship to the example above, the French word bande [bɑ̃d] could be pronounced both as ba-nde [band] or as ban-nde with a slightly nasalized [d])
• the palatalization of French apico-dental consonants that are followed by [i] and/or [ɥ] (ex: pronunciation of the French word dix [dis] is pronounced as dzix [dzis] and, similarly, the term parti may be pronounced as partsi)

As briefly mentioned above, many Congolese languages are ungendered languages and so there is often some mixing of the French masculine and feminine articles in speakers of Kinshasa French, such as the phrase Je veux du banane rather than the "correct" French Je veux de la banane.

See also

• French colonial empire
• Belgian colonial empire
• Geographical distribution of French speakers
• Camfranglais
• List of colonies and possessions of France
• Belgian Congo
• Maghreb French
• Françafrique
• Francophonie
• French-based creole languages
• French language in Minnesota
• French language in Vietnam
• French language in Cambodia
• French language in Laos
• French Polynesia
• Languages of Africa

External links

• LE FRANÇAIS EN AFRIQUE - Revue du Réseau des Observatoires du Français Contemporain en Afrique
• Links for Afrique francophone
• Dictionaries of various French-speaking countries
• Le Français et le Français populaire Africain: partenariat, cohabitation ou défiance? FPA, appartenance sociale, diversité linguistique
• La mondialisation, une chance pour la francophonie
• RFI - L’avenir du français passe par l’Afrique

Notes and References

1. Web site: Archived copy . 2023-04-15 . 2023-04-15 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230415152637/https://www.odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/sites/odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/files/uploads/Pr%C3%A9sentation_FRANCOSCOPE_2023-03-15_Finale.pdf . live .
2. Web site: En 2023, 327 millions de personnes parlent français dans le monde, dont près de la moitié en Afrique . 2023-04-15 . 2023-06-06 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230606153828/https://www.rtbf.be/article/en-2023-327-millions-de-personnes-parlent-francais-dans-le-monde-dont-pres-de-la-moitie-en-afrique-11169856 . live .
3. Web site: Accueil-Francoscope . 2023-04-15 . 2023-03-23 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230323230934/https://www.outils-odsef-fss.ulaval.ca/francoscope/ . live .
4. Web site: Archived copy . 2023-04-15 . 2023-04-15 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230415152637/https://www.odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/sites/odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/files/uploads/Pr%C3%A9sentation_FRANCOSCOPE_2023-03-15_Finale.pdf . live .
5. Web site: En 2023, 327 millions de personnes parlent français dans le monde, dont près de la moitié en Afrique . 2023-04-15 . 2023-06-06 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230606153828/https://www.rtbf.be/article/en-2023-327-millions-de-personnes-parlent-francais-dans-le-monde-dont-pres-de-la-moitie-en-afrique-11169856 . live .
6. Web site: Accueil-Francoscope . 2023-04-15 . 2023-03-23 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230323230934/https://www.outils-odsef-fss.ulaval.ca/francoscope/ . live .
7. 29 full members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF): Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, DR Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Seychelles, Togo, and Tunisia.
   One associate member of the OIF: Ghana.
   One observer of the OIF: Mozambique.
   One country not member or observer of the OIF: Algeria.
   Two French territories in Africa: Réunion and Mayotte.
8. Web site: La langue française dans le monde. Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF). 2019. 38. 2020-11-24. 2020-12-03. https://web.archive.org/web/20201203234216/https://www.francophonie.org/sites/default/files/2020-02/Edition%202019%20La%20langue%20francaise%20dans%20le%20monde_VF%202020%20.pdf. live.
9. Web site: Chutel. Lynsey. French is now the fifth most spoken world language and growing—thanks to Africans. 2020-09-30. Quartz Africa. 18 October 2018. en. 2020-11-08. https://web.archive.org/web/20201108001526/https://qz.com/africa/1428637/french-is-worlds-fifth-spoken-language-thanks-to-africans/. live.
10. Le français à Abidjan : Pour une approche syntaxique du non-standard by Katja Ploog, CNRS Editions, Paris, 2002
11. Web site: Øyvind . Dahl . Linguistic policy challenges in Madagascar .
12. Benrabah . Mohamed . 2007 . Language Maintenance and Spread: French in Algeria . International Journal of Francophone Studies . en . 10 . 193–215 . 10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.193_1 . Researchgate . 2024-03-18 . 2024-05-25 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240525234842/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249918399_Language_Maintenance_and_Spread_French_in_Algeria . live .
13. Web site: observatoire.francophonie.org. ODSEF. 12 April 2023. Richard Marcoux. Laurent Richard. Alexandre Wolff. March 2022. 20 March 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220320184029/https://observatoire.francophonie.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/odsef-lfdm-2022.pdf. live.
14. Web site: Qui parle français dans le monde – Organisation internationale de la Francophonie – Langue française et diversité linguistique. 2023-04-12. 2023-03-24. https://web.archive.org/web/20230324065348/https://observatoire.francophonie.org/qui-parle-francais-dans-le-monde/. live.
15. Web site: target-survey-french-most-spoken-language-drc . 2023-05-28 . 2022-10-23 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221023160328/https://www.target-sarl.cd/en/content/target-survey-french-most-spoken-language-drc-far-ahead-lingala . dead .
16. Web site: What Languages Are Spoken In Gabon? . 14 August 2017 . 19 May 2023 . 25 May 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240525234836/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-gabon.html . live .
17. Web site: 2015-09-11. Is there a difference between French and African French?. 2020-09-30. African Language Solutions. en-GB. 2020-10-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20201026074935/http://www.african-ls.com/blog/language-translation/is-there-a-difference-between-french-and-african-french/. live.
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