MDAI explained

MDAI, also known as 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane, is an entactogen drug of the 2-aminoindane group which is related to MDMA and produces similar subjective effects.[1] [2]

It acts as a selective serotonin and norepinephrine releasing agent (SNRA). The drug shows greatly reduced serotonergic neurotoxicity in comparison to MDMA in animals, although it still shows weak capacity for neurotoxicity with chronic use or in combination with amphetamine.

MDAI was developed in the 1990s by a team led by David E. Nichols at Purdue University. It has been encountered as a designer drug and has been used recreationally with reported street names such as "sparkle" and "mindy". In addition to its recreational use, there has been interest in MDAI for potential use in medicine, for instance in drug-assisted psychotherapy.[3]

Uses

Scientific research

MDAI and other similar drugs have been widely used in scientific research, as they are able to replicate many of the effects of MDMA, but without causing the serotonergic neurotoxicity associated with MDMA and certain related drugs. No tests have been performed on cardiovascular toxicity.[4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Recreational drug

MDAI has been advertised as a designer drug. It started to be sold online from around 2007, but reached peak popularity between about 2010 to 2012, after bans on mephedrone came into effect in various countries. Internet-sourced products claimed to be MDAI have been shown variously to contain mephedrone or other substituted cathinone derivatives, and mixed compositions of inorganic substances, while generally containing no MDAI. The number of internet searches for MDAI has been considerably higher in the United Kingdom compared to Germany and the United States.[10] MDAI is only non-neurotoxic in isolation but may become neurotoxic when mixed with other drugs.[11] Three deaths were linked to MDAI use in the UK during 2011–2012, all involving symptoms consistent with serotonin syndrome. Two of these also involved other drugs while one death appeared to be from MDAI alone.[12]

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

MDAI acts as a selective and well-balanced serotonin and norepinephrine releasing agent (SNRA) with much less (~10-fold lower) effect on dopamine release. In addition to inducing the release of the monoamine neurotransmitters, MDAI also inhibits their reuptake.[13] For comparison to MDAI, MDA and MDMA are well-balanced releasing agents of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine (SNDRAs). Conversely, the profile of monoamine release with MDAI is very similar to that of (R)-MDMA (levo-MDMA), which like MDAI is also a well-balanced SNRA with about 10-fold reduced impact on dopamine release, though MDAI is several-fold more potent than (R)-MDMA in vitro.[14]

In contrast to MDMA, MDAI shows no affinity for any of the serotonin receptors (Ki = all >10μM). This notably includes the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor, which is implicated in producing psychedelic effects, and the serotonin 5-HT2B receptor, which is implicated in causing cardiac valvulopathy.[15] However, MDAI shows significant affinity for all three of the α2-adrenergic receptors (Ki = 322 to 1121nM).

Activities of MDAI and related drugs
Compound Monoamine release (nM)
Dopamine
>10000 86 439
114 117 1334
31 3101 >10000
134 861 2646
698–1765 6.6–7.2 5.8–24.8
736–1291.7 12.3–13.8 8.5–24.5
160 108 190
49.6–72 54.1–110 51.2–278
(R)-MDMA (levo-MDMA) 340 560 3700
47 2608 622
540 3300 >100000
Notes: The smaller the value, the more strongly the compound produces the effect. See also Monoamine releasing agent § Activity profiles for a larger table with more compounds. Refs: [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22]

Effects

The family of drugs typified by MDMA produce their effects through multiple mechanisms of action in the body, and consequently produce three distinct cues which animals can be trained to respond to: a stimulant cue typified by drugs such as methamphetamine, a psychedelic cue typified by drugs such as LSD and DOM, and an "entactogen-like" cue which is produced by drugs such as MDAI and MBDB. These drugs cause drug-appropriate responses in animals trained to recognize the effects of MDMA, but do not produce responses in animals trained selectively to respond to stimulants or hallucinogens. Because these compounds selectively release serotonin in the brain but have little effect on dopamine or noradrenaline levels, they can produce empathogenic effects but without any stimulant action, instead being somewhat sedating.[23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29]

A 2024 study compared the effects of MDAI and MDMA in humans.[30] It found that MDAI produced comparable and very similar subjective effects to those of MDMA. This included pleasurable drug effects, drug liking, stimulation, happiness, openness, trust, and closeness. In addition, it included sense of well-being, emotional excitation, and extroversion, but not general activity or concentration, a profile of effects described as similar to that of MDMA. Other effects included a blissful state, experience of unity, and changed meaning of percepts, also described as comparable to MDMA. The effects of MDAI were slightly greater than those of 75mg MDMA and slightly lower than those of 125mg MDMA. At the employed dose of 3.0mg/kg, with 125mg MDMA corresponding to 1.9mg/kg, it was estimated that MDAI had about 60% of MDMA's potency in producing comparable psychoactive effects (hence, roughly 200mg MDAI would be similar to 125mg MDMA). Aside from subject effects, MDAI also increased blood pressure, cortisol levels, and prolactin levels similarly to MDMA. Conversely, it did not increase heart rate or body temperature.

Neurotoxicity

MDAI shows substantially lower serotonergic neurotoxicity than MDMA in animals and has been described as a "non-neurotoxic" analogue of MDMA.[31] [32] However, MDAI still shows weak serotonergic neurotoxicity both alone and particularly in combination with amphetamine in animals. As such, MDAI does not appear to be a fully non-neurotoxic alternative to MDMA.

Toxicity

Very high doses can be fatal in rats with a 50% fatality rate for those subcutaneously injected with 28 mg/kg of MDAI. This is a result of the way serotonin release interferes with thermoregulation.[33]

Pharmacokinetics

The duration of MDAI in humans appears to be similar to that of MDMA at 2 to 5hours or up to around 6hours.

Chemistry

The chemical structure of MDAI is indirectly derived from that of the illicit drug MDA, but the α-methyl group of the alkyl amino amphetamine side chain has been bound back to the benzene nucleus to form an indane ring system, which changes its pharmacological properties substantially.

Analogues

Synthesis

MDAI can be produced from 3-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)propionic acid[34] which is converted to the acid chloride and then heated to produce 5,6-methylenedioxy-1-indanone. Treatment of the indanone with amyl nitrite in methanol with HCl afforded the hydroxyimino ketone. This is reduced to the 2-aminoindan following a modification of Nichols' earlier method from a paper discussing DOM analogues,[35] using a Pd/C catalyst in glacial acetic acid with catalytic H2SO4.

Society and culture

Legal Status

China

As of October 2015 MDAI is a controlled substance in China.[36]

Denmark

MDAI is illegal in Denmark as of September 2015.[37]

Finland

Scheduled in the "government decree on psychoactive substances banned from the consumer market".[38]

Switzerland

As of December 2011 MDAI is a controlled substance in Switzerland.[39]

Notes and References

  1. Pinterova N, Horsley RR, Palenicek T . Synthetic Aminoindanes: A Summary of Existing Knowledge . Frontiers in Psychiatry . 8 . 236 . 17 November 2017 . 29204127 . 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00236 . Frontiers Media SA . free . 5698283 .
  2. Sainsbury PD, Kicman AT, Archer RP, King LA, Braithwaite RA . Aminoindanes--the next wave of 'legal highs'? . Drug Testing and Analysis . 3 . 7-8 . 479–482 . 2011 . 21748859 . 10.1002/dta.318 . Wiley .
  3. Oeri HE . Beyond ecstasy: Alternative entactogens to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine with potential applications in psychotherapy . Journal of Psychopharmacology . 35 . 5 . 512–536 . May 2021 . 32909493 . 10.1177/0269881120920420 . SAGE Publications . free . 8155739 .
  4. Nichols DE, Johnson MP, Oberlender R . 5-Iodo-2-aminoindan, a nonneurotoxic analogue of p-iodoamphetamine . Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior . 38 . 1 . 135–9 . January 1991 . 1826785 . 10.1016/0091-3057(91)90601-w . 10.1.1.670.504 . 20485505 .
  5. Johnson MP, Frescas SP, Oberlender R, Nichols DE . Synthesis and pharmacological examination of 1-(3-methoxy-4-methylphenyl)-2-aminopropane and 5-methoxy-6-methyl-2-aminoindan: similarities to 3,4-(methylenedioxy)methamphetamine (MDMA) . Journal of Medicinal Chemistry . 34 . 5 . 1662–8 . May 1991 . 1674539 . 10.1021/jm00109a020 .
  6. Johnson MP, Huang XM, Nichols DE . Serotonin neurotoxicity in rats after combined treatment with a dopaminergic agent followed by a nonneurotoxic 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) analogue . Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior . 40 . 4 . 915–22 . December 1991 . 1726189 . 10.1016/0091-3057(91)90106-c . 7199902 .
  7. Nichols DE, Marona-Lewicka D, Huang X, Johnson MP . Novel serotonergic agents . Drug Design and Discovery . 9 . 3–4 . 299–312 . 1993 . 8400010 .
  8. Sprague JE, Johnson MP, Schmidt CJ, Nichols DE . Studies on the mechanism of p-chloroamphetamine neurotoxicity . Biochemical Pharmacology . 52 . 8 . 1271–7 . October 1996 . 8937435 . 10.1016/0006-2952(96)00482-0 .
  9. Cozzi NV, Frescas S, Marona-Lewicka D, Huang X, Nichols DE . Indan analogs of fenfluramine and norfenfluramine have reduced neurotoxic potential . Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior . 59 . 3 . 709–15 . March 1998 . 9512076 . 10.1016/s0091-3057(97)00557-1 . 41048219 .
  10. Gallagher CT, Assi S, Stair JL, Fergus S, Corazza O, Corkery JM, Schifano F . 5,6-Methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane: from laboratory curiosity to 'legal high' . Human Psychopharmacology . 27 . 2 . 106–112 . March 2012 . 22389075 . 10.1002/hup.1255 . 205924978 .
  11. Brandt SD, Sumnall HR, Measham F, Cole J . Second generation mephedrone. The confusing case of NRG-1 . BMJ . 341 . c3564 . July 2010 . 20605894 . 10.1136/bmj.c3564 . 20354123 .
  12. Corkery JM, Elliott S, Schifano F, Corazza O, Ghodse AH . MDAI (5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane; 6,7-dihydro-5H-cyclopenta[f][1,3]benzodioxol-6-amine; 'sparkle'; 'mindy') toxicity: a brief overview and update . Human Psychopharmacology . 28 . 4 . 345–355 . July 2013 . 23881883 . 10.1002/hup.2298 . 12322724 .
  13. Johnson MP, Conarty PF, Nichols DE . [3H]monoamine releasing and uptake inhibition properties of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and p-chloroamphetamine analogues . European Journal of Pharmacology . 200 . 1 . 9–16 . July 1991 . 1685125 . 10.1016/0014-2999(91)90659-e .
  14. Pitts EG, Curry DW, Hampshire KN, Young MB, Howell LL . (±)-MDMA and its enantiomers: potential therapeutic advantages of R(-)-MDMA . Psychopharmacology . 235 . 2 . 377–392 . February 2018 . 29248945 . 10.1007/s00213-017-4812-5 .
  15. Dunlap LE, Andrews AM, Olson DE . Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine . ACS Chem Neurosci . 9 . 10 . 2408–2427 . October 2018 . 30001118 . 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00155 . 6197894 .
  16. Halberstadt AL, Brandt SD, Walther D, Baumann MH . 2-Aminoindan and its ring-substituted derivatives interact with plasma membrane monoamine transporters and α2-adrenergic receptors . Psychopharmacology (Berl) . 236 . 3 . 989–999 . March 2019 . 30904940 . 6848746 . 10.1007/s00213-019-05207-1 .
  17. Rothman RB, Baumann MH . Therapeutic potential of monoamine transporter substrates . Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry . 6 . 17 . 1845–1859 . 2006 . 17017961 . 10.2174/156802606778249766 .
  18. Setola V, Hufeisen SJ, Grande-Allen KJ, Vesely I, Glennon RA, Blough B, Rothman RB, Roth BL . 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") induces fenfluramine-like proliferative actions on human cardiac valvular interstitial cells in vitro . Molecular Pharmacology . 63 . 6 . 1223–1229 . June 2003 . 12761331 . 10.1124/mol.63.6.1223 . 839426 .
  19. Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, Romero DV, Rice KC, Carroll FI, Partilla JS . Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin . Synapse . 39 . 1 . 32–41 . January 2001 . 11071707 . 10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1<32::AID-SYN5>3.0.CO;2-3 . 15573624 .
  20. Rothman RB, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Lightfoot-Siordia C, Blough BE . Studies of the biogenic amine transporters. 14. Identification of low-efficacy "partial" substrates for the biogenic amine transporters . The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics . 341 . 1 . 251–262 . April 2012 . 22271821 . 3364510 . 10.1124/jpet.111.188946 .
  21. Marusich JA, Antonazzo KR, Blough BE, Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Partilla JS, Baumann MH . The new psychoactive substances 5-(2-aminopropyl)indole (5-IT) and 6-(2-aminopropyl)indole (6-IT) interact with monoamine transporters in brain tissue . Neuropharmacology . 101 . 68–75 . February 2016 . 26362361 . 4681602 . 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.09.004 .
  22. Nagai F, Nonaka R, Satoh Hisashi Kamimura K . The effects of non-medically used psychoactive drugs on monoamine neurotransmission in rat brain . European Journal of Pharmacology . 559 . 2-3 . 132–137 . March 2007 . 17223101 . 10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.11.075 .
  23. Steele TD, Nichols DE, Yim GK . Stereochemical effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and related amphetamine derivatives on inhibition of uptake of [3H]monoamines into synaptosomes from different regions of rat brain . Biochemical Pharmacology . 36 . 14 . 2297–303 . July 1987 . 2886126 . 10.1016/0006-2952(87)90594-6 .
  24. Oberlender R, Nichols DE . Drug discrimination studies with MDMA and amphetamine . Psychopharmacology . 95 . 1 . 71–6 . 1988 . 2898791 . 10.1007/bf00212770 . 19664637 .
  25. Nichols DE . Differences between the mechanism of action of MDMA, MBDB, and the classic hallucinogens. Identification of a new therapeutic class: entactogens . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs . 18 . 4 . 305–13 . 1986 . 2880944 . 10.1080/02791072.1986.10472362 .
  26. Oberlender R, Nichols DE . (+)-N-methyl-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-butanamine as a discriminative stimulus in studies of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine-like behavioral activity . The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics . 255 . 3 . 1098–106 . December 1990 . 1979813 .
  27. Oberlender R, Nichols DE . Structural variation and (+)-amphetamine-like discriminative stimulus properties . Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior . 38 . 3 . 581–6 . March 1991 . 2068194 . 10.1016/0091-3057(91)90017-V . 19069907 . PMID
  28. Marona-Lewicka D, Nichols DE . Behavioral effects of the highly selective serotonin releasing agent 5-methoxy-6-methyl-2-aminoindan . European Journal of Pharmacology . 258 . 1–2 . 1–13 . June 1994 . 7925587 . 10.1016/0014-2999(94)90051-5 . 10.1.1.688.1895 .
  29. Kovar KA . Chemistry and pharmacology of hallucinogens, entactogens and stimulants . Pharmacopsychiatry . 31 . 69–72 . July 1998 . Suppl 2 . 9754836 . 10.1055/s-2007-979349 . 28388528 .
  30. Angerer V, Schmid Y, Franz F, Gnann H, Speer JM, Gnann A, Helmecke S, Buchwald A, Brandt SD, Passie T, Liechti ME, Auwärter V . Acute psychotropic, autonomic, and endocrine effects of 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI) compared with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in human volunteers: A self-administration study . Drug Test Anal . 16 . 9 . 1002–1011 . September 2024 . 38056906 . 10.1002/dta.3622 .
  31. Nichols DE, Marona-Lewicka D, Huang X, Johnson MP . Novel serotonergic agents . Drug des Discov . 9 . 3–4 . 299–312 . 1993 . 8400010 .
  32. Johnson MP, Huang XM, Nichols DE . Serotonin neurotoxicity in rats after combined treatment with a dopaminergic agent followed by a nonneurotoxic 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) analogue . Pharmacol Biochem Behav . 40 . 4 . 915–922 . December 1991 . 1726189 . 10.1016/0091-3057(91)90106-c .
  33. Páleníček T, Lhotková E, Žídková M, Balíková M, Kuchař M, Himl M, Mikšátková P, Čegan M, Valeš K, Tylš F, Horsley RR . Emerging toxicity of 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI): Pharmacokinetics, behaviour, thermoregulation and LD50 in rats . Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry . 69 . 49–59 . August 2016 . 27083855 . 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2016.04.004 . 33032545 .
  34. Nichols DE, Brewster WK, Johnson MP, Oberlender R, Riggs RM . Nonneurotoxic tetralin and indan analogues of 3,4-(methylenedioxy)amphetamine (MDA) . Journal of Medicinal Chemistry . 33 . 2 . 703–10 . February 1990 . 1967651 . 10.1021/jm00164a037 .
  35. Nichols DE, Barfknecht CF, Long JP, Standridge RT, Howell HG, Partyka RA, Dyer DC . Potential psychotomimetics. 2. Rigid analogs of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylphenylisopropylamine (DOM, STP) . Journal of Medicinal Chemistry . 17 . 2 . 161–6 . February 1974 . 4809251 . 10.1021/jm00248a004 .
  36. Web site: 关于印发《非药用类麻醉药品和精神药品列管办法》的通知 . China Food and Drug Administration . 27 September 2015 . zh . 1 October 2015.
  37. Web site: Lists of euphoriant substances subject to control in Denmark. The Danish Medicines Agency . September 2015.
  38. https://finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/2014/20141130
  39. Web site: 812.121.11 . Verordnung des EDI über die Verzeichnisse der Betäubungsmittel, psychotropen Stoffe, Vorläuferstoffe und Hilfschemikalien (Regulation of the EDI about the directories of drugs, psychotropic substances, precursors and auxiliary chemicals) . Das Eidgenössische Departement des Innern (EDI) . December 2011 . de .

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