1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries explained

From February 8 to June 14, 1988, voters of the Democratic Party chose its nominee for president in the 1988 United States presidential election. Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis was selected as the nominee through a series of primary elections and caucuses culminating in the 1988 Democratic National Convention held from July 18 to July 21, 1988, in Atlanta, Georgia.

Background

Having been badly defeated in the 1984 presidential election, the Democrats in 1985 and 1986 were eager to find a new approach to win the presidency. They created the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), with the aim of recruiting a candidate for the 1988 election.

The large gains in the 1986 mid-term elections (which resulted in the Democrats taking back control of the Senate after six years of Republican rule) and the continuing Iran–Contra affair gave Democrats confidence in the run-up to the primary season.

Candidates

Nominee

Candidate			Most recent office	Home state	data-sort-type="date"	CampaignWithdrawal date	Popularvote	Contests won	Running mate
Michael Dukakis			Governor of Massachusetts (1975–1979, 1983–1991)		data-sort-value="0"	(Campaign) Secured nomination: June 7, 1988	data-sort-value="10,024,101"	10,024,101 (42.37%)	data-sort-value="30"	30	Lloyd Bentsen

Withdrew during primaries or convention

Candidate			Most recent office	Home state	data-sort-type="date"	CampaignWithdrawal date	Popular vote	Contests won
Jesse Jackson			Civil rights leader		data-sort-value="07-18-1988"	Eliminated at convention: July 21, 1988 (Campaign)	data-sort-value="6,941,816"	6,941,816 (29.34%)	data-sort-value="13"	13 VT caucus,
Al Gore			U.S. Senator from Tennessee (1985–1993)		data-sort-value="03-19-1988"	Withdrew: April 21, 1988 (Campaign)	data-sort-value="3,190,992"	3,190,992 (13.49%)	data-sort-value="8"	7
Paul Simon			U.S. Senator from Illinois (1985–1997)		data-sort-value="04-07-1988"	Withdrew: April 7, 1988(Campaign)	data-sort-value="1,107,692"	1,107,692 (4.68%)	data-sort-value="1"	1
Dick Gephardt			U.S. Representative from Missouri (1977–2005)		data-sort-value="03-29-1988"	Withdrew: March 29, 1988(Campaign)	data-sort-value="1,452,331"	1,452,331 (6.14%)	data-sort-value="3"	3
Gary Hart			U.S. Senator from Colorado (1975–1987)		data-sort-value="03-12-1988"	Suspended campaign: May 8, 1987 Re-entered: December 12, 1987 Withdrew: March 12, 1988 (Campaign)	data-sort-value="390,200"	390,200 (1.65%)	data-sort-value="0"	0

Candidates who received less than 1%

Withdrew before primaries

Candidate		Experience	Home state	data-sort-type="date"	CampaignWithdrawal date
Pat Schroeder		U.S. Representative from Colorado (1973–1997)		Withdrew: September 28, 1987(Campaign)
Joe Biden		U.S. Senator from Delaware (1973–2009)		Withdrew: September 23, 1987 (Campaign)

Declined

• Senator Lloyd Bentsen of Texas
• Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts (December 19, 1985)^[1]
• Businessman Lee Iacocca (July 16, 1986)
• Governor Mario Cuomo of New York (February 19, 1987)
• Senator Sam Nunn of Georgia (February 21, 1987)
• Senator Dale Bumpers of Arkansas (March 20, 1987)
• Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas (July 15, 1987)
• Senator Bill Bradley of New Jersey (August 2, 1987)
• Former Governor Chuck Robb of Virginia (November 12, 1987)

Polling

Nationwide polling

1986

Poll source	Publication
Gallup[2]	Jan 10-13, 1986	1%	1%	8%	8%	1%	-		22%	-	3%	2%		47%	18%	16%	3%	3%	6%	1%	5%
Gallup[3]	April 11-14, 1986	1%	1%	6%	7%	2%	-		27%	-	4%	1%		39%	14%	18%	2%	5%	6%	2%	2%
Gallup[4]	June 9-16, 1986			7%	7%				22%	-	4%			34%	26%	17%		3%	6%		3%
		-	-	-	-	-	-	-	30%	-	-	-		55%	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
		-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-		59%	28%	-	-	-	-	-	-
		-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-		75%	-	14%	-	-	-	-	-
Gallup[5]	September 3-17, 1986	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	29%	-	-	-		54%	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
		-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-		58%	29%	-	-	-	-	-	-
		-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-		74%	-	15%	-	-	-	-	-
Gallup[6]	October 24-27, 1986			8%	7%				27%	3%				32%	26%	14%		3%	6%		3%

1987

Poll source	Publication
Washington Post - ABC-News[7] [8]	Janaury 15-19, 1987	2%	1%	-	-	-	18%	-	1%	-		39%	-	13%	4%	-	-	-	-
Gallup[9]	Jan 16-19, 1987	1%	2%	11%	4%	-	23%	3%	1%	-		53%	29%	21%	5%	6%	-	-	-
		-	-	-	-	-	23%	-	-	-		60%	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
New York Times - CBS-News[10]	Jan 18-21, 1987	1%	1%	-	-	-	17%	1%	2%	-		33%	-	9%	3%	-	-	-	-
Washington Post - ABC-News[11]	March 5-9, 1987	1%	1%	-	3%	-	-	4%	3%	-		46%	-	14%	4%	2%	-	-	-
Gallup[12]	April 10-13, 1987	4%	2%	-	-	-	-	7%	6%	6%	-	-		27%	-	-	-	-	12%
Washington Post - ABC-News[13]	May 4, 1987	-	-	-	-	-	-	9%	-	-		36%	-	12%	-	-	-	-	-
New York Times - CBS-News[14]	May 5-6, 1987	1%	1%	-	-	-	-	6%	4%	-		32%	-	10%	-	-	1%	-	-
Gallup[15]	May 6-7, 1987	2%	1%	-	-	-	-	11%	7%	6%	-	-		22%	-	-	9%	-	5%
New York Times - CBS-News[16]	May 11-14, 1987	2%	2%	-	-	2%	-	11%	4%	5%	-	-		17%	-	-	6%	-	-
		3%	1%	6%	-	2%		25%	6%	3%	4%	-	-	12%	4%	-	5%	-	-
Washington Post - ABC-News[17]	May 28-June 2, 1987	4%	3%	-	-	-		11%	10%	5%	-	-		25%	-	-	13%	-	-
Gallup[18]	June 8-14, 1987	2%	7%	-	-	-	-	11%	7%	5%	-	-		18%	-	-	7%	-	5%
Gallup[19]	July 10-13, 1987	2%	4%	-	-	-	-	13%	3%	8%	-	-		17%	-	-	7%	-	2%
New York Times - CBS-News[20]	July 21-22, 1987	3%	4%	-	-	-	-	8%	3%	7%	-	-		14%	-	-	7%	5%	3%
Gallup[21]	Aug. 24-Sep. 2, 1987	2%	3%	-	-	-	-	13%	6%	8%	-	-		19%	-	-	7%	6%	2%
Gallup - Times Mirror Co.[22]	Sep. 1-13, 1987	1%	4%	-	-	-	-	15%	7%	6%	-	-		24%	-	-	7%	3%	3%
Washington Post - ABC-News[23]	September 17-23, 1987	4%	6%	-	-	-	-	12%	8%	7%	-	-		23%	-	-	7%	-	-
Gallup[24]	October 23-26, 1987	1%	-	-	-	-	-	14%	5%	7%	-	-		22%	-	-	8%	-
Washington Post - ABC-News[25]	December 13-15, 1987	4%	6%	-	-	-	-	15%	8%	7%		30%	-	20%	-	-	7%	-	-
New York Times - CBS-News[26]	December 15, 1987	2%	-	-	-	-	-	9%	1%	5%		21%	-	17%	-	-	4%	-	-
		4%	-	-	-	-	-	11%	3%	5%	-	-		22%	-	-	5%	-	-
Gallup[27]	Dec. 7-28, 1987	3%	-	-	-	-	-	10%	2%	5%		31%	-	13%	-	-	10%	-	26%

1988

Poll source	Publication
YCS[28]	Jan. 3–6, 1988	–	11%	4%	–		28%	17%	13%	27%
CBS News/New York Times	Jan. 17–21, 1988	2%	6%	4%	4%		23%	17%	9%	35%
Washington Post/ABC	Jan. 17–23, 1988	3%	11%	4%	–	23%		25%	12%	22%
Gallup[29]	Jan. 22–24, 1988	3%	16%	9%	6%		23%	15%	9%	19%
Harris Interactive	Jan. 7–26, 1988	–	15%	6%	–		19%	15%	8%	37%
Gordon Black	Jan. 21–28, 1988	–	13%	9%	–		17%	13%	7%	41%
CBS News/New York Times	Jan. 30–31, 1988	–	8%	4%	–		18%	16%	6%	48%
February 8: Iowa caucus
February 16: New Hampshire primary
CBS News/New York Times[30]	Feb. 17–21, 1988	1%		21%	12%	8%	10%	13%	6%	30%
March 8: Super Tuesday
CBS News/New York Times	Mar. 19–22, 1988	–		29%	8%	14%	–	22%	6%	21%

Head-to-head polling

Poll source	Publication	Samplesize	Marginof error
Gallup[31]	June 9–16, 1986	452 RV	±6.0%	30%		55%	–	—	15%
				–		59%	28%	—	13%
				—		75%	–	14%	11%

Statewide and regional polling

South

Poll source	Dates	Sample size	Margin of error
Atlanta Journal-Constitution[32]	Sep. 18–28, 1987	6,452 A	±2.0%	3%	3%	–	9%	5%	13%	–		27%	5%		35%
				–	–	17%	–	–	–		27%	11%	–		45%

California

Poll source	Dates	Sample size	Margin of error
Teichner/Sacramento Bee[33]	May 8–9, 1987	510 RV	±4.0%	3%	4%	5%	2%	2%		34%	9%	2%		39%
				2%	4%	8%	5%	5%	–		13%	3%		40%

MarylandNew Hampshire

Poll source	Dates	Sample size	Margin of error
Bannon Research[35]	Sep.–Oct. 1986	501 LV	±5.0%	1%	1%	26%	–	1%	–		47%	6%	1%	–	19%
				1%	1%	19%	27%	1%	—		33%	3%	–	–	17%

Pre-primary events

The Hart-Rice affair

The Democratic front-runner for most of 1987 was former Colorado Senator Gary Hart.^[36] Hart had made a strong showing in the 1984 primaries and, after Mondale's defeat in the presidential election, had positioned himself as the moderate centrist many Democrats felt their party would need to win.^[37]

However, questions and rumors about possible extramarital affairs and about past debts dogged Hart's campaign. One of the great myths is that Senator Hart challenged the media to "put a tail" on him and that reporters then took him up on that challenge. In fact, Hart had told E. J. Dionne of The New York Times that if reporters followed him around, they would "be bored". However, in a separate investigation, the Miami Herald claimed to have received an anonymous tip from a friend of Donna Rice that Rice was involved with Hart. It was only after Hart had been discovered that the Herald reporters found Hart's quote in a pre-print of The New York Times Magazine.^[38]

On May 8, 1987, a week after the Donna Rice story broke, Hart dropped out of the race.^[39]

In December 1987, Hart surprised many political pundits by resuming his presidential campaign.^[40] He again led in the polls for the Democratic nomination, both nationally and in Iowa. However, the allegations of adultery and reports of irregularities in his campaign financing had delivered a fatal blow to his candidacy, and he fared poorly in the early primaries before dropping out again.^[41]

The Hart scandal would later be depicted in the 2018 film The Front Runner, with Hugh Jackman portraying Hart.

Biden plagiarism scandals

See also: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign.

Delaware Senator Joe Biden led a highly competitive campaign which ended in controversy after he was accused of plagiarizing a speech by Neil Kinnock, then-leader of the British Labour Party.^[42] Though Biden had correctly credited the original author in all speeches but one, the one of which he failed to make mention of the originator was caught on video and sent to the press by members of the Dukakis campaign. In the video Biden is filmed repeating a stump speech by Kinnock, with only minor modifications. Michael Dukakis later acknowledged that his campaign was responsible for leaking the tape, and two members of his staff resigned.^[43]

It was also discovered that Biden had been guilty of plagiarism years before, while a student at the Syracuse University College of Law in the 1960s. Though Biden professed his integrity, the impression lingering in the media as the result of this double punch would lead him to drop out of the race. He formally suspended his campaign on September 28, 1987.

The Delaware Supreme Court's Board on Professional Responsibility would later clear Biden of the law school plagiarism charges.^[44]

After campaigns in 2008 and 2020, Biden was elected vice president in 2008 and 2012 and president in 2020.

Endorsements

Michael Dukakis

• Senator Donald Riegle of Michigan^[45]

Jesse Jackson

• Senator Ernest Hollings of South Carolina^[46]
• Former Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas^[47]
• Mayor Bernie Sanders of Burlington, Vermont^[48]
• Mayor Harold Washington of Chicago, Illinois^[49]
• Mayor Richard Arrington Jr. of Birmingham, Alabama^[50]
• Actor and comedian Bill Cosby^[51]
• Activist Paul Wellstone^[52]
• The Nation^[53]

Al Gore

• Georgia House of Representatives Speaker Tom Murphy^[54]
• Texas House of Representatives Speaker Gib Lewis^[55]
• Florida House of Representatives Speaker Jon L. Mills^[55]

Dick Gephardt

• Representative Tony Coelho of California^[56]
• Representative Martin Frost of Texas^[57]
• Representative Marvin Leath of Texas^[57]
• Representative Mike Synar of Oklahoma^[58]
• Representative Claude Pepper of Florida^[59]
• Representative Sander Levin of Michigan^[60]

Gary Hart

• Actor Warren Beatty^{[61] [62]}
• Comedian Steve Martin^[62]
• Actor Jack Nicholson^[62]
• Musician Stephen Stills^[62]
• Actress Debra Winger^[62]

Paul Simon

• The Des Moines Register^[63]

Results

In the Iowa caucuses, Gephardt finished first, Simon finished second, and Dukakis finished third. In the New Hampshire primary, Dukakis finished first, Gephardt finished second, and Simon finished third. Dukakis and Gore campaigned hard against Gephardt with negative ads, and eventually the United Auto Workers retracted their endorsement of Gephardt, who was heavily dependent on labor union backing.

In the Super Tuesday races, Dukakis won six primaries, Gore five, Jackson five and Gephardt one, with Gore and Jackson splitting the southern states. The next week, Simon won Illinois. 1988 is tied with 1992 as the race with the most candidates winning primaries since the McGovern reforms of 1971. Gore's effort to paint Dukakis as too liberal for the general election proved unsuccessful and he eventually withdrew. Jackson focused more on getting enough delegates to make sure African-American interests were represented in the platform than on winning outright.^[64] Dukakis eventually emerged as the party's nominee.

Date[65] [66]	Total pledged delegates[67]	Contest	Delegates won and popular vote						Total
			Michael Dukakis	Jesse Jackson	Al Gore	Paul Simon	Dick Gephardt	Others
February 8	45	Iowa caucus[68]	12 27,750	11,000	80	15 33,375	18 39,125	13,625	124,955
February 16	16	New Hampshire[69] [70]	8 44,112	9,615	8,400	4 21,094	4 24,513	15,179	122,913
February 23	68	Minnesota[71]	25 8,990	15 5,270	274	13 4,766	1,970	5,281	26,551
	17	South Dakota	7 22,349	3,867	5,993	3,992	10 31,184	4,221	71,606
February 28	20	Maine primary[72]	8 3,170	7 2,722	139	378	282	2,053	8,744
March 1	12	Vermont Caucus[73]	6 582	6 696	6	—	—	120	1,404
March 5	11	Wyoming caucus[74]	4 76	38	4 88	6	3 61	1	270
March 8 (Super Tuesday) (1099)	47	Alabama[75]	31,206	25 176,764	22 151,739	3,063	30,214	12,845	405,831
	32	Arkansas[76]	8 94,103	7 85,003	16 185,758	9,020	59,711	63,949
	101	Florida[77]	68 520,868	33 254,825	161,106	27,592	182,779	121,606
	64	Georgia[78]	97,179	29 247,831	24 201,490	8,388	41,489	26,375
	17	Hawaii caucus[79]	10 2,716	7 1,739	58	46	98	318
	16	Idaho caucus[80]	7 144	4 73	32	16	3	112
	48	Kentucky[81]	11 59,433	9 49,667	27 145,988	9,393	28,982	25,258
	52	Louisiana[82]	10 95,661	23 221,522	18 174,971	5,153	67,029	60,683
	56	Maryland[83]	34 242,479	22 152,642	46,063	16,013	42,059	16,631
	93	Massachusetts[84]	71 418,256	22 133,385	31,631	26,176	72,943	31,552
	40	Mississippi[85]	1 29,941	24 160,651	15 120,364	2,118	19,693	26,650
	71	Missouri[86]	61,303	18 106,386	14,549	21,433	53 305,287	18,857
	12	Nevada caucus[87]	3 427	3 382	4 491	20	33	2 285
	68	North Carolina[88]	16 137,993	25 224,177	27 235,669	8,032	37,553	36,534
	39	Oklahoma[89]	9 66,278	52,417	20 162,584	6,901	10 82,596	21,951
	20	Rhode Island[90]	16 34,159	4 7,369	1,932	1,392	2,013	1,958
	56	Tennessee[91]	19,348	12 119,248	44 416,861	2,647	8,470	9,740
	145	Texas[92]	61 579,713	46 433,335	38 357,764	34,499	240,158	121,576
	62	Virginia[93]	15 80,183	32 164,709	15 81,419	7,045	15,935	15,608
	53	Washington[94]	29 3,784	24 3,083	166	300	78	1,074
	6	American Samoa caucus[95]	4 (39%)	(7%)	—	—	2 (22%)	(32%)
March 10	10	Alaska caucus[96]	3 774	4 882	48	18	15	791
March 12	36	Colorado caucus[97]	17 4,852	13 3,720	307	14	—	6 1,867
	37	South Carolina[98]	1,018	22 8,114	7 2,777	36	307	8 2,853
March 15	160	Illinois[99]	29 245,289	57 484,233	77,265	74 635,219	35,108	23,816
March 19	34	Kansas caucus[100]	15 278	13 235	7 125	—	12	114
March 20	40	Puerto Rico[101]	11 70,733	13 87,757	7 45,361	9 57,639	9,159	3,753
March 26	127	Michigan caucus[102]	45 61,674	82 113,777	4,253	4,466	27,222	326
March 29[103]	63[104]	Connecticut[105]	35 (58%)	17 (28%)	(8%)	(1%)	—	11 (5%)
April 5	81[106]	Wisconsin[107]	44 (47%)	24 (30%)	13 (17%)	(5%)	—	(1%)
April 16	36[108]	Arizona caucus[109]	(54%)	(38%)	(5%)	(1%)	—	(2%)
April 18	15[110]	Delaware caucus[111]				—	—
April 19	243	New York[112]	142 801,457	87 585,076	5 157,559	17,011	–	14,083
April 25	23	Utah caucus[113]	19 (72%)	4 (15%)	–	–	–	(13%)
April 26	161	Pennsylvania[114]	114 1,002,480	47 411,260	44,542	9,692	7,254	32,462
May 3	79[115]	Indiana[116]	63 (70%)	16 (22%)	(3%)	(2%)	(3%)	—
	159[117]	Ohio[118]	115 (63%)	41 (27%)	(2%)	(1%)	–	3 (7%)
	16[119]	Washington, D.C.[120]	3 (18%)	13 (80%)	(1%)	(1%)	–	—
May 10	25	Nebraska[121]	18 (63%)	7 (26%)	(1%)	(1%)	(3%)	(6%)
	37	West Virginia[122]	36 (75%)	1 (13%)	(3%)	(1%)	(2%)	(6%)
May 17	45	Oregon[123]	27 (57%)	18 (38%)	(1%)	(1%)	(2%)	(1%)
June 7	272	California[124]	173 1,910,808	99 1,102,093	56,645	43,771	–	25,417
	19[125]	Montana[126]	15 (69%)	4 (22%)	(2%)	(1%)	(3%)	(3%)
	100	New Jersey[127]	66 414,829	34 213,705	18,062	—	—	7,706
	24	New Mexico[128]	16 (61%)	8 (28%)	(3%)	(2%)	–	(6%)
June 14	?	North Dakota[129]	(85%)	(15%)	–	–	–	–
Total[130]			1,427 10,024,101 (42.37%)	1,046 6,941,816 (29.34%)	307 3,190,992 (13.49%)	115 1,452,331 (6.14%)	98 1,107,692 (4.68%)	940,431 (3.98%)

Convention and general election

See main article: 1988 Democratic National Convention and 1988 United States presidential election. The Democratic Party Convention was held in Atlanta, Georgia, July 18–21. The Dukakis nominating speech delivered by Arkansas governor and future president Bill Clinton was widely criticized as too long and tedious.^[131]

Texas State Treasurer Ann Richards (who two years later became the state governor) delivered a memorable keynote address in which she uttered the lines "Poor George [Bush], he can't help it, he was born with a silver foot in his mouth." Six years later, Bush's son George W. Bush would deny Richards re-election as Texas Governor.

With most candidates having withdrawn and asking their delegates to vote for Dukakis, the tally for president was as follows:^[132]

• Michael Dukakis - 2,877 (70.09%)
• Jesse Jackson - 1,219 (29.70%)
• Richard Stallings - 3 (0.07%)
• Joe Biden - 2 (0.05%)
• Dick Gephardt - 2 (0.05%)
• Lloyd Bentsen - 1 (0.02%)
• Gary Hart - 1 (0.02%)

Jesse Jackson's campaign believed that since they had come in a respectable second, Jackson was entitled to the vice presidential spot. Dukakis refused, and gave the spot to Lloyd Bentsen.

Bentsen was selected in large part to secure the state of Texas and its large electoral vote for the Democrats. During the vice-presidential debate, Republican candidate and Senator Dan Quayle ignored a head-on confrontation with Bentsen (aside from the "Jack Kennedy" comparison) and spent his time attacking Dukakis.

See also

• 1988 Republican Party presidential primaries

External links

• Booknotes interview with Jeanne Simon on Codename: ScarlettLife on the Campaign Trail by the Wife of a Presidential Candidate, July 23, 1989.
• Booknotes interview with Dayton Duncan on Grass Roots: One Year in the Life of the New Hampshire Presidential Primary, March 31, 1991.

Notes and References

1. News: Kennedy, Citing Senate Goals, Rules Out '88 Presidential Bid. December 20, 1985. The New York Times.
2. News: February 6, 1986 . Hart Early Democrat Choice . 4 . The Daily Item . November 27, 2024.
3. News: May 4, 1986 . Cuomo Gains As Democratic Pick . 4 . Fort Worth Star-Telegram . November 27, 2024.
4. News: August 7, 1986 . Iacocca Gains On Hart As Choice Of Democrats . A27 . Fort Worth Star-Telegram . November 27, 2024.
5. News: October 19, 1986 . Hart Holds Convincing Lead For Democratic Nomination . 34A . Star Tribune . November 27, 2024.
6. News: November 20, 1986 . Hart's Lead Over Two Closest Rivals Narrows . 3A . Danville Register and Bee . November 27, 2024.
7. News: January 22, 1987 . GOP Favoring Bush For '88, Poll Shows . 12A . The Charlotte Observer . November 28, 2024.
8. News: February 21, 1987 . A New Race: Cuomo Starts Field On Fire With Decision . A-3 . The News Tribune . November 28, 2024.
9. News: February 12, 1987 . Hart Leader For Democratic Nomination . 11 . The Chapel Hill News . November 28, 2024.
10. News: January 25, 1987 . POLL GIVES HART AND BUSH CLEAR LEADS FOR NOMINATIONS . 18 . The New York Times . November 28, 2024.
11. News: March 11, 1987 . GOP Favoring Bush For '88, Poll Shows . A10 . Concord Monitor . November 28, 2024.
12. News: June 28, 1987 . Democrats Lack Consensus Choice For '88 . 8A . The Chapel Hill News . November 28, 2024.
13. News: March 11, 1987 . GOP Favoring Bush For '88, Poll Shows . A10 . Concord Monitor . November 28, 2024.
14. News: May 8, 1987 . POLL FINDS INFIDELITY A LESSER EVIL THAN OTHERS IN PICKING CANDIDATE . A1+B6 . The New York Times . November 28, 2024.
15. News: June 28, 1987 . Democrats Lack Consensus Choice For '88 . 8A . The Chapel Hill News . November 28, 2024.
16. News: May 17, 1987 . JACKSON TOPS POLL (NOT COUNTING CUOMO) . 1+32 . The New York Times . November 28, 2024.
17. News: June 4, 1987 . Jackson, Simon Benefit From Hart Withdrawal . 11 . Chicago Tribune . November 28, 2024.
18. News: June 28, 1987 . Democrats Lack Consensus Choice For '88 . 8A . The Chapel Hill News . November 28, 2024.
19. News: July 30, 1987 . Jackson, Dukakis Lead Democrats; Many Decided . 9A . The Chapel Hill News . November 28, 2024.
20. News: July 26, 1987 . Undecided Democrats Reported on Increase . 22 . The New York Times . November 28, 2024.
21. News: September 20, 1987 . Candidate List Changes Little In Recent Poll . 8 . The Daily Oklahoman . November 28, 2024.
22. News: October 1, 1987 . Jackson, Bush Front-Runners In Poll, But Leads Shaky . A10 . Hartford Courant . November 28, 2024.
23. News: September 24, 1987 . Jackson, Simon Benefit From Hart Withdrawal . A-14 . Oakland Tribune . November 28, 2024.
24. News: November 12, 1987 . No Strong Democratic Favorite . 4 . The Daily Item . November 28, 2024.
25. News: December 19, 1987 . Poll Shows Hart Leading Democrats, Trailing Bush . A2 . Albuquerque Journal . November 28, 2024.
26. News: December 17, 1987 . Poll Shows Hart and Jackson Leading . B16 . The New York Times . November 28, 2024.
27. News: January 27, 1988 . News Tribune-Gallup Poll . A10 . The News Tribune . November 28, 2024.
28. News: 31 Aug 2018 . US President - D Primares (Polling) . OurCampaigns . 30 March 2020.
29. News: 28 Jan 1988 . Dukakis surging as Hart weakens . 1 . subscription . 6 Aug 2023.
30. Bartels . Larry M. . Broh . C. Anthony . Winter 1989 . A Review: The 1988 Presidential Primaries . The Public Opinion Quarterly . 53 . 4 . 563–589 . 10.1086/269172 . 2749359 .
31. News: Gallup . George Jr. . 7 Aug 1986 . Iacocca gains on Hart as choice of Democrats . 27 . . 19 Sep 2022.
32. News: Mashek . John W. . 4 Oct 1987 . Jackson leads, but undecided reigns in South . 1 . . 19 Sep 2022.
33. News: 11 May 1987 . California poll shows no front-runner . 11 . . 19 Sep 2022.
34. News: Himowitz . Michael J. . 27 Oct 1987 . Jackson, Bush leading now among Marylanders . 1 . . 19 Sep 2022.
35. News: Babbitt buoyed by New Hampshire presidential polls. Hoy. Anne Q.. Arizona Republic. 5 Nov 1986. 8. subscription. 19 Sep 2022.
36. John Dillin for The Christian Science Monitor. 23 February 1987 Cuomo's `no' opens door for dark horses
37. News: E. J. Dionne Jr.. Gary Hart The Elusive Front-Runner. May 3, 1987. The New York Times, pg. SM28.
38. News: May 10, 1987 . The Gary Hart Story: How It Happened. . The Miami Herald . November 20, 2014 . August 24, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140824160635/http://www.unc.edu/~pmeyer/Hart/hartarticle.html . dead .
39. News: Courting Danger: The Fall Of Gary Hart . The New York Times . 1987-05-09 . David . Johnston . Wayne . King . Jon . Nordheimer.
40. Bob Drogin for the Los Angeles Times. 16 December 1987 Hart Back in Race for President : Political World Stunned, Gives Him Little Chance
41. Associated Press, in the Los Angeles Times. 13 March 1988 Quits Campaign : 'The People 'Have Decided,' Hart Declares
42. News: Biden Is Facing Growing Debate On His Speeches . September 16, 1987 . .
43. They failed spectacularly in '88. Now, these Biden aides are getting sweet redemption. . Thompson . Alex . Pager . Tyler . January 19, 2021 . Politico.
44. News: Professional Board Clears Biden In Two Allegations of Plagiarism . 29 . The New York Times . May 29, 1989 .
45. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 298 . 19: Illinois and Michigan: Jesse Jackson Peaks . 1989 . Appearing at the press conference were Michigan Senator Don Riegle and three other members of the state's congressional delegation, all endorsing him..
46. Web site: Jackson: I Deserve More Superdelegates . 17 June 1988 .
47. News: JESSE JACKSON'S VICTORY . 1988-04-29 . William Raspberry . . Washington, D.C. . 0190-8286 . 1330888409.
48. News: Bernie Sanders highlights his 1988 support of Jesse Jackson's White House run. The Washington Post. Wagner. John. February 15, 2016. September 9, 2021.
49. Web site: Oreskes . Michael . Chicago's Mayor Endorses Jackson . The New York Times . 4 December 2019 . 9 September 1987.
50. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 281 . 18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco . 1989 . The black political leaders who had supported Mondale in 1984, such as Mayor Richard Arrington of Birmingham, were now fully in the Jackson camp..
51. Web site: User Clip: Bill Cosby for Jesse Jackson C-SPAN.org. 2021-06-21. www.c-span.org. en-us.
52. Web site: Paul Wellstone's Legacy. 2021-06-21. In These Times. 12 October 2012 . en.
53. News: 1988-04-16. For Jesse Jackson and His Campaign. en-US. The Nation. 2021-06-21. 0027-8378.
54. http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34462 Our Campaigns - GA US President - D Primary Race - Mar 08, 1988
55. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 286 . 18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco . 1989 . ...Gore was moving around the South gathering endorsements - particularly from prominent state politicians such as Speaker Tom Murphy of Georgia, Speaker Gib Lewis of Texas, Speaker Jon Mills of Florida.
56. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 255 . 16: Iowa: Dick Gephardt's Hour . 1989 . Congressman Tony Coelho paid a visit and also came back with the view that Gephardt needed a much sharper focus to his message that Iowa voters could identify with.
57. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 282 . 18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco . 1989 . The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas....
58. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 282 . 18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco . 1989 . The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas, Mike Synar in Oklahoma....
59. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 282 . 18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco . 1989 . The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas, Mike Synar in Oklahoma and Claude Pepper in Florida was a valued credential..
60. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 299 . 19: Illinois and Michigan: Jesse Jackson Peaks . 1989 . Congressman Sander Levin of Michigan, a Gephardt supporter....
61. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 195 . 13: Too Much Damage to Control . 1989 . There were other phone calls, too, including repeated ones from actor Warren Beatty, a longtime supporter and friend going back to the McGovern campaign of 1971-72.
62. Web site: Campaign '88 Gets the Star Treatment. . 7 June 1988.
63. Book: Jack W. Germond . Jules Witcover . Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 . Warner Books . 0-446-51424-1 . 263 . 16: Iowa: Dick Gephardt's hour . 1989 . Simon got a lift from the endorsement of the Des Moines Register, influential with the sort of political activists who attended the caucuses..
64. News: Williams. Juan. Waiting for The Jackson Reaction; Will Jesse End His Crusade With a Bang or a Whimper?. 1988-07-17. The Washington Post. C1.
65. News: Clipped from Chicago Tribune. Chicago Tribune. 11 March 1992. 14.
66. News: 1992 Presidential Primary Calendar .
67. News: Election calendar at a glance . 14 February 1992 . The Times Leader . https://web.archive.org/web/20190521034802/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31773082/the_times_leader/ . 21 May 2019 . live . Newspapers.com.
68. Web site: Robert S. Boyd . Susan Bennett . February 9, 1988 . Dole, Gephardt take Iowa . 1 November 2017 . Google News Search Archive . Spartanburg Herald-Journal . Spartanburg, SC . 1, 3.
69. Web site: Robert S. Boyd . Susan Bennett . February 17, 1988 . Bush, Dukakis score big wins . 1 November 2017 . Google News Search Archive . Spartanburg Herald-Journal . Spartanburg, SC . 1, 4.
70. Book: New Hampshire. Dept. of State . Manual for the General Court . 1989 . Concord, N.H. : Dept. of State . University of New Hampshire Library . 132, 153.
71. Web site: Robert S. Boyd . Susan Bennett . February 24, 1988 . Dole scores impressive victories . 1 November 2017 . Google News Search Archive . Spartanburg Herald-Journal . Spartanburg, SC . 1, 4.
72. Web site: Our Campaigns - ME US President - D Caucus Race - Feb. 28, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
73. Web site: Vermont Elections Database (Search Elections) . 1 November 2017 . Vermont Secretary of State . search results: 1976-2016 . 8 November 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20171108094747/http://vtelectionarchive.sec.state.vt.us/elections/search/year_from:1976/year_to:2016/office_id:1/stage:Democratic . dead .
74. Web site: Our Campaigns - WY US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 05, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
75. Web site: Our Campaigns - AL US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
76. Web site: Arkansas Primary Results . 3 November 2017 . U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) .
77. Web site: Florida Department of State (Election Results) . 3 November 2017 . Florida Secretary of State . search results: 1988 Presidential preference primary (Democratic party).
78. Web site: Supplement to the Georgia Official and Statistical Register 1985-1988 . 3 November 2017 . Georgia Official and Statistical Register . 3 . search results: 1988 Presidential preference primary (Democratic party) . 8 November 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20171108095030/http://statregister.galileo.usg.edu/statregister/view?docId=statregister/statsup1985/statsup1985-0228.xml . dead .
79. Web site: Incomplete Statewide Data for Caucuses . 3 November 2017 . U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) . Excel worksheet.
80. Web site: Idaho Caucus County Results . 3 November 2017 . U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) . Excel worksheet.
81. Web site: Kentucky County Results . 3 November 2017 . U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) . Excel worksheet.
82. Web site: Louisiana County Results . 3 November 2017 . U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) . Excel worksheet.
83. Web site: 1988 Presidential Election . 3 November 2017 . Maryland State Board of Elections.
84. Web site: Massachusetts County, Congressional District and Town Results . 3 November 2017 . U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) . Excel worksheet.
85. Web site: Mississippi County Results . 3 November 2017 . U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) . Excel worksheet.
86. Web site: Missouri County Results . 3 November 2017 . U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) . Excel worksheet.
87. Web site: Our Campaigns - NV US President - D Caucus - Mar. 08, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
88. Web site: Our Campaigns - NC US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
89. Web site: Our Campaigns - OK US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
90. Web site: Our Campaigns - RI US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
91. Web site: Tennessee primary results (1972, 1988, 1992) . 3 November 2017 . U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) . 5 .
92. Web site: Our Campaigns - TX US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
93. Web site: Our Campaigns - VA US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
94. Web site: Our Campaigns - WA US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 08, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
95. News: After Super Tuesday: Caucus Tallies . The New York Times . 10 March 1988 . 3 November 2017 .
96. Web site: Our Campaigns - AK US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 10, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
97. Web site: Our Campaigns - CO US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 12, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
98. Web site: Our Campaigns - SC US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 12, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
99. Web site: Rothberg . Donald M. . March 16, 1988 . Simon win clouds Democratic race . 7 November 2017 . Google News Search Archive . Lawrence Journal-World . 1A.
100. Web site: KS US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 19, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
101. Web site: March 21, 1988 . Bush Wins Puerto Rico Primary and 14 Delegates . 7 November 2017 . New York Times.
102. Web site: March 27, 1988 . Jackson wins in Michigan . 7 November 2017 . Google News Search Archive . Lawrence Journal-World . 1A, 13A.
103. Web site: March 30, 1988 . Dukakis says victory boosts his campaign . 12 November 2023 . Google News Search Archive . The Nashua Telegraph . 1, 16.
104. Web site: March 30, 1988 . With big win, Dukakis drive back in gear . 12 November 2023 . Google News Search Archive . Ellensburg Daily Record . 8.
105. Web site: Our Campaigns - CT US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 24, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
106. Web site: April 5, 1988 . Dukakis resumes his front-runner status . 12 November 2023 . Google News Search Archive . Ellensburg Daily Record . 5.
107. Web site: Espo . David . April 6, 1988 . Dukakis slows Jackson, Bush wins easily . 7 November 2017 . Google News Search Archive . Gettysburg Times . 1A, 2A.
108. Web site: Democrats stump as New York primary nears . Google News Search Archive . Lakeland Ledger . 23 September 2023 . 5A . April 17, 1988 . "Arizona Democrats, whose favorite son, former Gov. Bruce Babbitt, was an early casualty in the Democratic race, held caucuses on Saturday to allocate 36 delegates.".
109. Web site: Our Campaigns - AZ US President - D Caucus Race - Apr. 16, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
110. Web site: White Catholics Hold Key in New York . Google News Search Archive . Eugene Register-Guard . 23 September 2023 . 3A . April 19, 1988 . The delegates selected Monday will attend the state convention May 23, where Delaware's 15 national convention delegates will be chosen..
111. Web site: Our Campaigns - DE US President - D Caucus Race - Apr. 18, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
112. Web site: April 20, 1988 . Dukakis' victory resounding . 7 November 2017 . Google News Search Archive . Newburgh Evening News . 1A, 4A.
113. Web site: April 26, 1988 . Dukakis aims to extend streak; Bush seeks clincher with Pa. win . 29 November 2023 . Google News Search Archive . The Free-Lance Star . 6.
114. Web site: Our Campaigns - PA US President - D Primary Race - Apr. 26, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
115. Web site: Dukakis wins Indiana, Bayh Overwhelms Rival . Google News Search Archive . Toledo Blade . 23 September 2023 . 4A . May 4, 1988 . The state will send 79 delegates to the Democratic convention and 51 to the Republican meeting..
116. Web site: Our Campaigns - IN US President - D Primary Race - May 03, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
117. Web site: Hallett . Joe . Dukakis Landslide Buries Jackson in Ohio, Indiana; MARTA Levy Wins Easily . Google News Search Archive . Toledo Blade . 23 September 2023 . 1A, 4A . May 4, 1988 . "Mr. Ravolo projected that Mr. Dukakis won 115 of the 159 Ohio delegates up for grabs, with Mr. Jackson garnering 41.".
118. Web site: Our Campaigns - OH US President - D Primary Race - May 03, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
119. Web site: Dukakis wins Indiana, Bayh Overwhelms Rival . Google News Search Archive . Toledo Blade . 23 September 2023 . 4A . May 4, 1988 . Mr. Jackson, who hadn't won a primary since March 20 in Puerto Rico, gained 13 delegates in the district, and Mr. Dukakis, 3..
120. Web site: Our Campaigns - DC US President - D Primary Race - May 03, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
121. Web site: May 11, 1988 . Dukakis "working hard to wrap it up" after wins in W. Va., Neb. . 29 November 2023 . Google News Search Archive . The Free-Lance Star . 6.
122. Web site: May 11, 1988 . Dukakis gains over Jackson, polls show Bush losing steam . 29 November 2023 . Google News Search Archive . The Free-Lance Star . 19.
123. Web site: May 18, 1988 . Dukakis "working hard to wrap it up" after wins in W. Va., Neb. . 29 November 2023 . Google News Search Archive . The Free-Lance Star . 6.
124. Web site: Our Campaigns - CA US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
125. Web site: Bush, Dukakis Say the Race is On . Google News Search Archive . Toledo Blade . 23 September 2023 . 1A, 5A . June 8, 1988 . "Mr. Dukakis had gained 15 delegates; Mr. Jackson gained 4.".
126. Web site: Our Campaigns - MT US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
127. Web site: Our Campaigns - NJ US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
128. Web site: Our Campaigns - NM US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
129. Web site: Our Campaigns - ND US President - D Primary Race - Jun 14, 1988 . Our Campaigns.
130. Web site: Our Campaigns - US President - D Primaries Race - Feb 01, 1988. www.ourcampaigns.com. 5 April 2018.
131. News: I just fell on my sword . John . Brummert . Arkansas Democrat-Gazette . 1988-07-22.
132. Web site: Our Campaigns - US President - D Convention Race - Jul 18, 1988. www.ourcampaigns.com. 5 April 2018.